The earliest dated temple in Rajasthan is the Shitaleshwara Temple at Chandrabhaga, near Jhalrapatan (Distriact Jhalawar), founded in 689. Of this temple only the sanctum and the vestibule, with a very late roof have survived. The hypostyle mandapa in front of the vestibule appears to be later by at kleast a century. The sanctum has prominent niche-shrines on the cardinal offsets. The podium-mouldings are bold and simple, the kalasha moulding being repla ced on the cardinals by a band decorated with lotus-scrolls and on some projectioins by ornate square rafter ebds. The wall has a plain surface, punctuated with heavy square pilasters, the latter decorated with a vase-and-foilage motif at the base and capital, a median band of scrolls, a lotus-band of kirttimukhas and geese and brackets of a plain, curved profile. The wall is surmounted by a eave-cornice. The sanctum door-frame was originally of four ornamented bands. Ganga and Yamuna are represented in the sculptural tradition of the Gupta period on its lower part. The vestibule is an oblong compartment with a row of 4 tall pillars and pilasters, showing vase-and-foilage at the square base, ornate octagonal shaft surmounted by vase-and-foilage capital and brackets of plain curved profile.
The surviving remains of the ruined Shiva Temple at Kans (District Kota), dated by an ins cription in 738, indicate that the temple was similar to the Shitaleshwara Temple on plan and design.
The Harshat-mata Temple at Abaneri (District Jaipur ruined temple of which onbly the sanctum, shorn of its superstructure, has survived standing on 3 stepped terraces,while
remains of its pillared mandapa and porch. The by an ambulatory is pancha-ratha on plan sculptured niche on each buttress of the
show Vasudeva-Vishnu, Pradyumna and Balarama-Sankarshana, respectively, on the south, west and north, indicating that the original temple was dedicated to Vishnu. In the sanctum is now enshrined an image of four-armed Harasiddhi, locally called Harshat-mata. The fa ces of the sanctum shell and the uppermost terrace are decorated with niches, containing religious and secular sculptures, each surmounted by a large pediment. The sculptures include romantic themes of dance, music, garden-sport and love, depicted with rich luxuriousness and a sense of gay abandon. The socle mouldings are bold and simple and the sculptures show volume and grace, reminis cent of the Gupta tradition. The decorative motifs, illustrated by the pediment composed of bold chaitya-dormers, pilasters surmounted by quarter lotus brackets, lumas and wavy vegetal patterns of palmettes, indicate that this temple is assignable to the 8th century.
A temple of a comparable design and date but without an ambulatory has been uncovered at Mandor (District Jodhpur). It is, however, badly dilapidated and only the podium mouldings of its sanctum proper and two terraces have survived. This temple appears to have undergone many subsequent re constructions.
The significant group of temples of Osian (District Jodhpur) belongs to two series, one early and the other late. The earlier series is represented by nearly a dozen and the later by half a dozen temples.
The earlier Osian temples are characterised by certain decorative and architectural peculiarities. They stands on a high terrace with bold mouldings, usually surmounted by a band, decorated with a wavy vegetal design. The terrace is punctuated with sculptured niches which are crowned by pediments and certain images of Ganesha, Kubera and other Brahmanical gods and goddesses. The socle mouldings are bold and simple. The temples are normally pancha-ratha on plan and in elevation and sculptured niches on all the 5 projections of the wakll, but a temples leave the projections flanking the cardinal offsets niches are surmounted by pediments and are larget on the latter display images of family-deities Trivikrama, Varaha, Vishnu or Harihara on
The Regents are invariably represented deities like Ganesha, Surya, Chandra, Revanta, Brahma, and Parvati on the auxiliary offsets. Temple 6 and the north-west Temple, however, show respectively, ascetics and apsaras (nymphs) on the auxiliary offsets.
The wall is surmounted by a frieze of chain, above which occurs usually broad recess, decorated with Krishna-lila scenes on temples 1 to 4 and with diapers of half-diamonds on the remaining temples. The shikhara, covered with a bold mesh of chaitya-dormers, is invariably pancha-ratha in design and of 5 to 7 storeys. The central offset extends to the neck which is surmounted by an amalaka and pot-finial. The earlier temples are, as a rule, without an ambulatory and consist on plan of a sanctum, an open hall and a porch. The outer bays of the mandapa are provided with balustrades punctuated with projecting elephant's heads, as on the Gadarmal Temple at Badoh (p.23). In many cases the mandapa is of the nava-ranga variety with occasional lateral transepts. The so-called Sun Temple and the oldest temple of the Sachiyamata group have each a pair of tall pillars at the entrance to the porc h. At least three temples are of the panchayatana type, viz., Harihara Temples 1 and 2 and the so-called Sun Temple, the last-mentioned also showing traces of an enclosing cloister.
The sanctum doorway has 4 or 5 bands, one of which is decorated with an interlacing design of adoring nagas, whose tails are held in the hands of a Garuda figure presented as the tutelary image. The vestibule has a porch resting on 2 pillars and 2 pilasters, the latter usually decorated with elegant figures of apsaras, sometimes surmounted by representations of Vasudeva-Vishnu and Balarama-Sankarashana, both riding on Garuda. The pilars of the vestibule and mandapa are heavily decorated with designs of vase-and-foilage, kirttimukhas, scrolls, and a square ribbed cushion, surmounted by either double roll or palmette brackets. The enclosing dwarf pillars are less elaborately ornamented and usually carry double-roll brackets. The ceilings of the vestibule and the hall are highly decorated, the former with an elaborate design of nagapasha entwining vidyadharas (divine angels).
Among the earlier Osian temples, Harihara Temple No.l3and the Jaina Temple of Mahavira are of exceptioinal design. The former is unique among the Osian temples in that its hall- ceiling and roof are of a vaulted design and its platform is quite plain. Its sanctum is rectangular on plan and lperhaps had a wagon-vault superstructure.
Tuesday, January 1, 2008
TEMPLES OF RAJASTHAN
THE TEMPLES OF PRATHIHARA AGE
The surviving temples of central India and Rajasthan dating from the 8th and 9th centuries have certain common features, which distinguish them from the preceding and following theistic buildings. As these regions were largely under the sway of the Gurjara-Pratihara during the 8th and 9th centuries, we may call this style Pratihara. Since the Pratiharas ruled over an extensive empire from Kanauj, the style spread over vast tracts of north India, including the present States of Uttar Pradesh and the Punjab as far as the Himalayas and had its reverberations further east and west. It is but natural that a style so extensive as this should show regional variations and local idioms.
The Pratihara temples of central India are characterised by a low socle, a simple and relatively stunted spire, a wall decorated with a single band of sculptured niches crowned byh tall pediments and an unpretentious plan, general consiting of only the sanctum and vestibule which in a few cases is preceded by a porch.
The Pratihara temples of Rajasthan, represented by the group at Osian (p.28), have a more elaborate plan and a slightly different design and decorative scheme. As these temples play a vital role in the development of the regional style, their discussion has been reserved for the following chapter on the temples in Rajasthan.
The group of temples at Naresar, near Gwalior, forming the earliest examples of the central Indian Pratihara style show a square sanctum with a curvilinear tri-ratha spire of a stunted shape and a constricted vestibule with a simple gabled roof. Their doorway is of the overdoor design usually with three simple bands decorated with scrolls, pilasters and serpents whose tails are held in the hands of Garuda represented centrally on the lintel. The lintel shows short pediments, surmounted by a frieze of chain-and-bell design which continues round the shrine. The jangha (wall) is plain except for sculptured niches on the central offsets depicting deities like Ganesha, Karttikeya, Lakulisha, Surya and Parvati. The site also has an interesting rectangular shrine showing 2 major offsets on the longer rear side with usual sculptured niches and a wagon-vault roof. The group of temples of Batesara, District Morena and the Mahadeva Temple at Amrol, both situated not far from Gwalior, are similar on plan, the latter being slightly larger and more elaborate in ornamentation. The Amrol temple has on each projection of its wall a sculptured niche crowned by a short but bold pediment. Its doorway is more ornate, the pilasters being embellished with graceful figures of nymphs and loving couples. These temples anticipate the Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior and are datable roughly to the 8th century.
The ruined Shiva Temple at Majhua, District Shivapuri, M.P., is comparable in plan and date with the Amrol temple but shows divergence in details of design and ornamentatioin. This temple replaces the torus moulding of the podium on the central offset by ornate square rafter ends, a feature characteristic of central India from earlier times. The wall shows a prominent niche qhich is confined to the central projection, the remaining projections being plain. A broad recess separates the wall from the spire which repeats the bhumi-amalakas on the flanks of the central offset, as seen on the roughly contemporary temple at Pashtar in Saurashtra and Temple No.IV at Barakar, Disttrict Burdwan, West Bengal.
A small shrine at Telahi, not far from Mahua, is slightly later in date with an advanced plan showing a pancha-ratha sanctum with a porch in front. The jangha (wall) shows pilasters of an early Pratihara order on the offsets flanking the central one and dikpala figures in niches crowned byh pediments in the corner offsets. The recesses of the jangha are also decorated with tall thin pediments.
The Teli-ka-Mandir at Gwalior is the grandest temple of the Pratihara 8th centuryu, but is exceptional in design. It consists on plan of a rectangular sanctum and vestibule, the former surmounted by a lofty (24.40m high) wagon-vault superstructure. The podium mouldings are simple and bold, but include a recessed frieze of sculptures, representing gods and goddesses in niches surmounted by richly carved scrolls. The wall at cardinal offsets displays elaborate niches-shrines surmounted by a large pediment or shikhara- motif. The wall also shows smaller replicas of the same design on the corner buttresses. The shikhara portioin is composed of 2 storeys, indicated by lateral amalakas, which are crowned by a wagon-vault roof of 2 components. On the shorter sides, the central offset of the shikhara shows a progressively widening series of chaitya-dormers, surmounted by an enormous sun-window, crowned by an ornate arch. On the longer sides, however, the oblong superstructure is decorated with a monotonous design of double rows of niches. The temple is entered through a grand flight of steps leading to an elaborate doorway of 5 bands, in the lower part are carved elegant figures of river-goddesses, flanked by attendants and Shiva dwarapalas. The doorway of the sanctum proper differs only in introducing Shakta dwarapalas in the place of Shakti. The decorative and plastic the me and style together with the palaeography of its short inscriptions suggest c.750 as the date of this temple which appears to have been founded by King Yashovarman of Kanauj.
In decorative and architectural features the ruined Shiva Temple at Indor (District Guna, M.P.) bears striking affinity to the Teli-ka-Mandir temple at Gwalior, with which it is not only co-eval but may even share common authorship. This temple however, is circular on plan' and has a sanctum of 12 offsets. Rising above the bold podium mouldings, the wall consists of ornate offsets alternating with plain angular wall surface, the whole surmounted by the shikhara. The major offsets are decorated with niches which are surmounted by tall pediments and contain images of Ganesha, Karttikeya, Uma and the 8 Regents of quarters, which represent fine specimens of the Pratihara art.
The above temples are followed by the Jarai Math at Barwasagar (District Jhansi), and Gadarmal Temple at Badoh (Disttrict Vidisha). Both have a rectangular sanctum and niche-shrines on the main offsets as at Teli-ka-Mandir, but unlike the latter, their sanctum is pancha-ratha on plan and in elevation, roofed by a partly preserved massive shikhara. Both have elaborately ornamented pillars and entrance door-frame of 5 bands, but while the Jarai Math is an unpretentious structure comprising only a sanctum and a vestibule, the Gadarman Temple adds to these a mandapa with transepts and a porch enclosed by a high balustrade punctuated with projecting elephant heads. The Gadarmal Temple stands on an ample, ornate platform surrounded by seven subsidiary shrines and has lavishly decorated mandapa pillars and is a little more evolved on plan and in design than the foregoing Pratihara temples.
The Chaturmukha Mahadeva Temple at Nachna, in District Panna, fa mous for its diamond fields, carries over its sanctum a developed northern shikhara, of pancha-ratha design. The temple preserves only a square tri-ratha sanctum with a plain interior and a richly decorated exterior. The interior, lighted by a doorway in the east and trellis-windows on the remaining 3 sides, enshrines a powerfully rendered chaturmukha Shiva-linga, noted for the sublime expressioin on its 4 faces. Externally the trellis-windows on the cardinal offsets are surmounted by a pair of niches, depicting Vidyadharas (divine attendants)_ with their consorts, crowned by pediments of chaitya-dormers. Each corner buttress of the wall shows a niche carrying an image of the Regent of the cardinal point, sur mounted by an elaborate pediment. Of 5 storeys, the shikhara is covered with a developed mesh of chaitya-dormers. All its buttresses project beyond the shoulder of the spire, which is surmounted by a heavy amalaka. While the windows and doorways of the temple are carved with friezes depicting dwarfs, scrolls, river-goddesses and the over-door design in the Gupta tradition, its mouldings and shikhara design, the treatment of the 'Regents, and decorative architectural motifs like the pediment, heart-shaped flowers, garland-loops and square rafter ends carved with conventional lion heads are in the developed Pratihara style of the 9th century.
The small but well-proportioned Sun Templeat Mankheda (District Tikamgarh, M.P.) is a gem among the Pratihara temples, roughly assignable to the same date as the above-noted temples. Essentially similar to the Jarai Math in design and ornamentation, the temple consists of a square pancha-ratha sanctum with a shikhara, a vestibule with an ornate roof surmounted by a lion figure and a simple porch. The shikhara is well-preserved and has excellent proportion. Its central offset projects beyond the neck which is surmounted by a heavy amalaka.
The Kutakeshvara Temple at Pathari (District Vidisha) consisting of a Kadamba type of tri-ratha pyramidical shikhara of horizontal tiers, a constricted vestibule and a porch of single bay is as simple as the rock-cut Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior, comprising a sanctum with a pancha-ratha shikhara and similar vestibule and porch. Both are assignable to the 9th century, the latter being securely dated to 875 by an inscription pertaining to the reign of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja.
Of the Jaina temples at Deogarh (District Jhansi) Nos. 12 and 15 are best preserved and are referable to the 9th century. Temple 15 is a triple-shrined structure with the roof of each component shrine lost and the pllain wall relieved by shallow sculptured niches surmounted by pediments. The structure consists of 3 tiny sancta (with the usual niche-shrines of the central offsets on their outer face) sharing a common assembly hall which is entered through a porch and a doorway. The 4 pillars and 12 pilasters of the mandapa and the door-frame bear typical Pratihara ornaments. Temple 12 comprises only a sanctum with an ambulatory and a vestibule. Its sanctum is pancha-ratha on plan and carries a heavy shikhara. Its outer decor is distinctive and shows on the wall latticed windows alternating with pilasters, the former inset with shallow niches sur mounted by thin and tall pediments. The niches contain relief figures of 24 labelled Jaina Yakshis around the wall which shows door-frame designs on the three cardinal projections.
The Mahadevi Temple at Gyaraspur (District Vidisha) is partly rock-cut and partly structural. It is a mature example of the Pratihara style, consisting on plan of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. Each of its shorter sides show 3 such windows, 2 projecting from the mandapa and 1 from the sanctum proper. The sanctum is tri-ratha on plan with a pancha-ratha shikhara of 9 turrets which is strikingly similar in design to that of the Shiva Temple at Kerakot in Kutch (p.35). The buttresses of the shikhara extend to the neck which is surmounted by a pair of amalakas and a pot-finial. The roofs of the porch and the hall are pyramidical composed of horizontal tiers. The temple has 2 ornate doorways of 5 bands. The hall doorway shows a figure of Chakreshvari as the tutelary image,.while the sanctum door-frame is carved with a row of standing Jinas on the lintel. This temple shows on the wall faces iconographically developed images of Jaina Yakshas and Yakshis some of which are labelled in the characters of the late 9th century. The mature decorative motifs and architectural features combined with the developed iconography would also indicate late 9th century as the date of this temple.
The Pratihara temples of central India are thus seen to have a simple plan and design, displaying some characteristic ornaments of the style, including tall p[ediments, a frieze of garland-loops on the top of the wall, a band of nagas on the door-frame and rich carvings of vase-and-foilage, s crolls, krittimukhas and a square, ribbed cushion-cap[ital to be found largely on the pillars.
The tiny shrine of Shiva at Jagatsukh (near Manali in District Kulu of Himachal Pradesh) dates from the early 8th century and is among the earliest specimens of the Pratihara style, with its simple tri-ratha sanctum, resembling that of the Naresar group of temples, roofed by a shikhara showing even bolder chaitya-dormers. The earliest temples at Jageshwar and Gopeshwar and the Shiva temple at Lakhamandal, all situated in the Himalayan hills, are also assignable to the 8th century. Most of these temples comprise tri-ratha or pancha-ratha sanctum roofed by a short, heavy-shouldered shikhara and preceded by a porch, adding sometimes a mandapa in beetween. Gopeshwar and Jageshwar also have rectangular shrines with wagon-vault superstructure, resembling that of the Teli-ka-Mandir, Gwalior (p,21). To the early 9th century may be attributed the Basheshwar Mahadeva Temple at Bajaura (District Kulu), which shows an advanced plan and architectural design with a four-faced opening and has elongated statutory of the regional art style. Dating from the 8th century are the woodedn temples of Shakti Devi at Chhatrarhi and of Lakshana Devi at Brahmaur in the Chamba region, both enshrining as cult-images bronze figures of Devi, known for their slender and elongated forms. These are the earliest surviving wooden shrines showing a rich repertoire of the Pratihara ornaments and decorative motifs with some influence of the Gandhara style and the arts of Nepal and Kashmir. The rock-cut temple complex at Masrur (District Kangra), dating from the later half of the 9th century, is also a notable Pratihara monument of considerable artistic and architectural significance.
The Kutakeshvara Temple at Pathari (District Vidisha) consisting of a Kadamba type of tri-ratha pyramidical shikhara of horizontal tiers, a constricted vestibule and a porch of single bay is as simple as the rock-cut Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior, comprising a sanctum with a pancha-ratha shikhara and similar vestibule and porch. Both are assignable to the 9th century, the latter being securely dated to 875 by an inscription pertaining to the reign of Pratihara Mihira Bhoja.
Of the Jaina temples at Deogarh (District Jhansi) Nos. 12 and 15 are best preserved and are referable to the 9th century. Temple 15 is a triple-shrined structure with the roof of each component shrine lost and the pllain wall relieved by shallow sculptured niches surmounted by pediments. The structure consists of 3 tiny sancta (with the usual niche-shrines of the central offsets on their outer face) sharing a common assembly hall which is entered through a porch and a doorway. The 4 pillars and 12 pilasters of the mandapa and the door-frame bear typical Pratihara ornaments. Temple 12 comprises only a sanctum with an ambulatory and a vestibule. Its sanctum is pancha-ratha on plan and carries a heavy shikhara. Its outer decor is distinctive and shows on the wall latticed windows alternating with pilasters, the former inset with shallow niches sur mounted by thin and tall pediments. The niches contain relief figures of 24 labelled Jaina Yakshis around the wall which shows door-frame designs on the three cardinal projections.
The Mahadevi Temple at Gyaraspur (District Vidisha) is partly rock-cut and partly structural. It is a mature example of the Pratihara style, consisting on plan of a porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum with an ambulatory. Each of its shorter sides show 3 such windows, 2 projecting from the mandapa and 1 from the sanctum proper. The sanctum is tri-ratha on plan with a pancha-ratha shikhara of 9 turrets which is strikingly similar in design to that of the Shiva Temple at Kerakot in Kutch (p.35). The buttresses of the shikhara extend to the neck which is surmounted by a pair of amalakas and a pot-finial. The roofs of the porch and the hall are pyramidical composed of horizontal tiers. The temple has 2 ornate doorways of 5 bands. The hall doorway shows a figure of Chakreshvari as the tutelary image,.while the sanctum door-frame is carved with a row of standing Jinas on the lintel. This temple shows on the wall faces iconographically developed images of Jaina Yakshas and Yakshis some of which are labelled in the characters of the late 9th century. The mature decorative motifs and architectural features combined with the developed iconography would also indicate late 9th century as the date of this temple.
The Pratihara temples of central India are thus seen to have a simple plan and design, displaying some characteristic ornaments of the style, including tall p[ediments, a frieze of garland-loops on the top of the wall, a band of nagas on the door-frame and rich carvings of vase-and-foilage, s crolls, krittimukhas and a square, ribbed cushion-cap[ital to be found largely on the pillars.
The tiny shrine of Shiva at Jagatsukh (near Manali in District Kulu of Himachal Pradesh) dates from the early 8th century and is among the earliest specimens of the Pratihara style, with its simple tri-ratha sanctum, resembling that of the Naresar group of temples, roofed by a shikhara showing even bolder chaitya-dormers. The earliest temples at Jageshwar and Gopeshwar and the Shiva temple at Lakhamandal, all situated in the Himalayan hills, are also assignable to the 8th century. Most of these temples comprise tri-ratha or pancha-ratha sanctum roofed by a short, heavy-shouldered shikhara and preceded by a porch, adding sometimes a mandapa in beetween. Gopeshwar and Jageshwar also have rectangular shrines with wagon-vault superstructure, resembling that of the Teli-ka-Mandir, Gwalior (p,21). To the early 9th century may be attributed the Basheshwar Mahadeva Temple at Bajaura (District Kulu), which shows an advanced plan and architectural design with a four-faced opening and has elongated statutory of the regional art style. Dating from the 8th century are the woodedn temples of Shakti Devi at Chhatrarhi and of Lakshana Devi at Brahmaur in the Chamba region, both enshrining as cult-images bronze figures of Devi, known for their slender and elongated forms. These are the earliest surviving wooden shrines showing a rich repertoire of the Pratihara ornaments and decorative motifs with some influence of the Gandhara style and the arts of Nepal and Kashmir. The rock-cut temple complex at Masrur (District Kangra), dating from the later half of the 9th century, is also a notable Pratihara monument of considerable artistic and architectural significance.
Saturday, December 22, 2007
EARLY CHALUKYAN REMPLES (A.C.500--750)
While the Gupta temples were being built in central and north India, a brisk building activity was being pursued in a part of the Deccan with principal centres at the early Chalukyan sites of Aihole, Badami, Mahakuteshwara and LPattadakal, in district Bijapur of Karnataka State. (Situated only a few miles apart from one another, these are usually overlooked byh an ordinary visitor because of their location in an unfrequented interior part of the State. But those who seek to know will find a visit to these places highly rewarding). This move,ment started about the 5th century and laster till the 8th and initiated several significant temple-forms which later developed into the highly ornate temples of Belur and Halehid. The earliest temple of this region is the Ladh Khan at Aihole, distance of 13km from Pattadakal,. Here we notice that a Gupta form had already been conceived. Of the scores of temples which adorn Aihole, 4 are of outstanding importance for the development of northern temple style, viz., the Durga, Huchchimalligudi, Huchchappayyagudi (Temple No.9) and Temple No.24, all dating from 6th-7th centuries. The shikhara appearing over these temples is of the early experimental variety, representing a prototype of the characteristic north Indian type. The Durga Temple is a peripteral structure with an apsidal sanctum and mandapa, comprising nave and aisles, enclosed by a pillared verandah, with a portico approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole raised on a high mioulded socle. The mandapa is lighted by elegantly carved, perforated trellises which alternate with niches containing images of deities. The mandapa has a flat roof of 2 tiers, that over the nave being higher. The apsidal sanctum is surmounted by a heavy shikhara, lately placed, of 3 rathas and more than 2 storeys indicated by bhumi-amalakas. The Huchchimalligudi Temple is a rectangular structure consisting of a square sanctum, enclosed by a covered processional passage, a vestibule, a pillared hall and a projecting porch. The sanctum is roofed by a curvilinear shikhara. The facade is plain but for a frieze of vase pattern on the parapet of the porch. This is the earliest temple to introduce a vestibule between the sanctum and the mandapa. The Huchgchappayyagudi Temple at the same site is a version without ambulatory of the foregoing and shows a more ornate door-frame and superior sculptures found on the cardinal niches of the sanctum. The only temple at Aihole to show a well-presented shikhara, complete with neck, amalasaraka and pitcher finial, is Temple No.24 which closely resembles the Huchchappayyagudi, with a similar but heavier shikhara.
Mahakuteshwara, situated near Badami, has a group of temples of which one known as Sangameshwara, comprising a sanctum and a portico, is of some importance. The sanctum displays a sculptured niche in each cardinal offset and carries a stumpy and massive shikhara, partially resembling the early temples of Aihole.
The temple art blossomed further at the last and latest, Chalukyan centre of Pattadakal, 29km from Badami, which shows temples of both northern and southern styles. As temples of northern style incorporate some features of the southern and vice-versa, it appears that the architectural conventions had not yet crystallised. Among the temples of the northern style, those of the Kadasiddheshwar and Jambulinga are the simplest, comprising only a sanctum and a mandapa. The sanctum of each has a sculptures niche on the bhadra-projections and is crowned by a squat and ponderous shikhara. Each carries a prominent sukamasa-antifix over the constr5icted vestibule and has a latticed window on the lateral sides of the mandapa.
The Kashivishwanath Temple is similar on plan to the foregoing, with the difference that its shikhara shows an advance and is of the pancha-ratha variety, divided into 5 storeys, and its mandapa carries a flat roof of 2 tiers, the higher one raised over the nave-pillars.
The Galaganath is a temple with a conspicuous projectioin on the 3 sides of the sanctum ambulatory. The vestibule has survived, but the mandapa has disappeared. This is the only temple at Pattadakal which stands on a moulded platform, decorated with a short parapet design. The shikhara storey is slightly taller and more proportionate and it is complete with a globular amalasaraka and a short finial. It bears a marked resemblance to the Alampur group of temples in the outline and proportion of the shikhara and in the design of the ambulatory.
The temple of Papanath at the same site is a long low structure with porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum, the last surmounted by a stunted northern type of shikhara, too small in proportion to the total dimensions of the building, while the vestibule is proportionately larger, almost assuming the dimensions of a court. The main decoratioin on the wall is a central band of proje cting niches, representing a repeated shrine-motif, which though quite pleasing in itself, shows a poverty of idea. The unbalanced and inorganic plan and design of the temple indicate that it still belongs to a formative and experimental stage.
More significant than the above is the group of temples at Alampur in District Mahabubnagar, adjoining Hyderabad and situated on the bank of the river Tungabhadra. This place has 9 temples, popularly known as the Nava-Brahma temples, of which 8 belong to the northern style and one (of Tarka-Brahma) to the southern style. The temples of the northern style, locally called the Vishva-Brahma, Vira-Brahma, Arka-Brahma, Kumara-Brahma, Bala-Brahma, Padma-Brahma, Garuda-Brahma and Svarga-Brahma, mark the culmination of the Chalikyan architecture and are comparable to the early Pratihara temples of north India in essential features of plan, compositioin and embellishment. Their layout is more logical and organic than that of the Papanath Temple at Pattadakal over which they mark a distinct improvement. The incongruities of the Papanath Temple, illustrated by the strings of shrine-models of the southern order (adorning its first floor parapet), are not found at Alampur. The principle decoration of the wall, composed of niches and latticed windows, attains here a lyrical elegance and the modelling of sculptures is more sensitive and less weighty. The heavy mouldings of the podium and the ponderous cornice mouldings, separating the wall from the shikhara noticed at Papanath, are here subdued and become more architectonic. The shikhara is more balanced and shows a better curvature, though it is still tri-ratha in design. The vestibule forms an integral adjunct of the sanctum. In front of the vestibule stretches the central pillared nave of the mandapa with a higher roof, resembling a clerestory, resting on 4 to 8 pillars and a pair of pilasters. The nave is surrounded by aisles with a sloping roof. A pillared portico is added in front of the mandapa only in two cases. Two doorways are usually provided in the interior. In most cases the door-frame shows an extended overdoor design and the tutelary image depicts Garuda, holding the tail ends of adoring nagas who form a canopy over the heads of Ganga and Yamuna, appearing on the lower parts of the jambs. The mandapa pillars carry ornate brackets, usually ornamented with the typical foliage of the Pratihara age. The pillars, however, differ in details; the central nave pillars of the Vishva-Brahma Temple show the Pallava type of sejant lion motif at the base. The sanctum proper is tri-ratha corresponding to the similar design of the shikhara and exhibits a sculptured niche on each bhadra projection.
Thus in respect of general plan and design and many typical architectural and decorative motifs such as ornamental, square rafter ends, composition of niches and the niche-shrines of the sanctum transepts and the garland loop pattern surmounting the jangha (wall), these temples come close to the temples of early Pratihara age.
The Svarge_Brahma Temple has an inscription of Chalukya Vijayaditya (696-733) of the Badami family and the Kumara-Brahma mentions a Vallabha, the well-known viruda of the early Chalukya kings, in characters of the 7th-8th centuries. These temples, therefore, appear to have been erected under the patron-age of the early Chalukya rulers of Badami during the 7th-8th centuries.
Mahakuteshwara, situated near Badami, has a group of temples of which one known as Sangameshwara, comprising a sanctum and a portico, is of some importance. The sanctum displays a sculptured niche in each cardinal offset and carries a stumpy and massive shikhara, partially resembling the early temples of Aihole.
The temple art blossomed further at the last and latest, Chalukyan centre of Pattadakal, 29km from Badami, which shows temples of both northern and southern styles. As temples of northern style incorporate some features of the southern and vice-versa, it appears that the architectural conventions had not yet crystallised. Among the temples of the northern style, those of the Kadasiddheshwar and Jambulinga are the simplest, comprising only a sanctum and a mandapa. The sanctum of each has a sculptures niche on the bhadra-projections and is crowned by a squat and ponderous shikhara. Each carries a prominent sukamasa-antifix over the constr5icted vestibule and has a latticed window on the lateral sides of the mandapa.
The Kashivishwanath Temple is similar on plan to the foregoing, with the difference that its shikhara shows an advance and is of the pancha-ratha variety, divided into 5 storeys, and its mandapa carries a flat roof of 2 tiers, the higher one raised over the nave-pillars.
The Galaganath is a temple with a conspicuous projectioin on the 3 sides of the sanctum ambulatory. The vestibule has survived, but the mandapa has disappeared. This is the only temple at Pattadakal which stands on a moulded platform, decorated with a short parapet design. The shikhara storey is slightly taller and more proportionate and it is complete with a globular amalasaraka and a short finial. It bears a marked resemblance to the Alampur group of temples in the outline and proportion of the shikhara and in the design of the ambulatory.
The temple of Papanath at the same site is a long low structure with porch, hall, vestibule and sanctum, the last surmounted by a stunted northern type of shikhara, too small in proportion to the total dimensions of the building, while the vestibule is proportionately larger, almost assuming the dimensions of a court. The main decoratioin on the wall is a central band of proje cting niches, representing a repeated shrine-motif, which though quite pleasing in itself, shows a poverty of idea. The unbalanced and inorganic plan and design of the temple indicate that it still belongs to a formative and experimental stage.
More significant than the above is the group of temples at Alampur in District Mahabubnagar, adjoining Hyderabad and situated on the bank of the river Tungabhadra. This place has 9 temples, popularly known as the Nava-Brahma temples, of which 8 belong to the northern style and one (of Tarka-Brahma) to the southern style. The temples of the northern style, locally called the Vishva-Brahma, Vira-Brahma, Arka-Brahma, Kumara-Brahma, Bala-Brahma, Padma-Brahma, Garuda-Brahma and Svarga-Brahma, mark the culmination of the Chalikyan architecture and are comparable to the early Pratihara temples of north India in essential features of plan, compositioin and embellishment. Their layout is more logical and organic than that of the Papanath Temple at Pattadakal over which they mark a distinct improvement. The incongruities of the Papanath Temple, illustrated by the strings of shrine-models of the southern order (adorning its first floor parapet), are not found at Alampur. The principle decoration of the wall, composed of niches and latticed windows, attains here a lyrical elegance and the modelling of sculptures is more sensitive and less weighty. The heavy mouldings of the podium and the ponderous cornice mouldings, separating the wall from the shikhara noticed at Papanath, are here subdued and become more architectonic. The shikhara is more balanced and shows a better curvature, though it is still tri-ratha in design. The vestibule forms an integral adjunct of the sanctum. In front of the vestibule stretches the central pillared nave of the mandapa with a higher roof, resembling a clerestory, resting on 4 to 8 pillars and a pair of pilasters. The nave is surrounded by aisles with a sloping roof. A pillared portico is added in front of the mandapa only in two cases. Two doorways are usually provided in the interior. In most cases the door-frame shows an extended overdoor design and the tutelary image depicts Garuda, holding the tail ends of adoring nagas who form a canopy over the heads of Ganga and Yamuna, appearing on the lower parts of the jambs. The mandapa pillars carry ornate brackets, usually ornamented with the typical foliage of the Pratihara age. The pillars, however, differ in details; the central nave pillars of the Vishva-Brahma Temple show the Pallava type of sejant lion motif at the base. The sanctum proper is tri-ratha corresponding to the similar design of the shikhara and exhibits a sculptured niche on each bhadra projection.
Thus in respect of general plan and design and many typical architectural and decorative motifs such as ornamental, square rafter ends, composition of niches and the niche-shrines of the sanctum transepts and the garland loop pattern surmounting the jangha (wall), these temples come close to the temples of early Pratihara age.
The Svarge_Brahma Temple has an inscription of Chalukya Vijayaditya (696-733) of the Badami family and the Kumara-Brahma mentions a Vallabha, the well-known viruda of the early Chalukya kings, in characters of the 7th-8th centuries. These temples, therefore, appear to have been erected under the patron-age of the early Chalukya rulers of Badami during the 7th-8th centuries.
Wednesday, December 19, 2007
GUPTA AND LATE GUPTA TEMPLES (A.C,400-700)
The Gupta age was marked by an unprecedented intelle ctual ferment and creative upsurge in all branches of arts and letters. Hitherto, temples were largely made of timber or other perish able material. The potentiality of dressed stone was for the first time appreciated during the Gupta period which ushered in an age of temple construction that was characterized by a more reasoned application of structural principles. Under the impact of the bhakti cult or worship of the personal god, which had taken deep root and permeated all the sects and sections of society, temples were built in fair number for the installatioin and worship of popular deities like Vasudeva and Balarama, Varaha and Narsimha, Vishnu, Shiva, Skanda and Bhddha throughout northern and central India and the Deccan of which a handful have survived. The ritual of the worship required basically a sanctum for the deity and a shelter for the worshipper, which were logically provided in the Gupta shrine.
Thus a firm foundation of Indian temple architecture was laid in the Gupta period when the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple—consiisting of a square sanctum and a pillared porch—emerged. The examples of the evolved Gupta temple also show a covered processional path for circumambulation which formed a part of the worship-ritual. The earlier examples in stone masonry are distinguished by a flat slab-roof, usually monolithic, while the later temples, constructed of either brick or stone, developed a shikara. The gradual evolution of the style is tra ceable through development of the plan and the ornamentation on the pillars and door-frame, the latter introducing new decorative motifs like goblins (ganas), couples (mithumnas), flyuing angels (vidyadharas), door-keepers (d varapalas) and a significant figure relief in the c entre of the lintel, emblematic of the deity to whom the shrine is dedicated.
The earliest group of Gupta temples, dating from 5th century and showing a single-celled sanctum with a shallow portico resting on 4 pillars in front, is represented by Temple 17 at Sanchi (the site of the famous Buddhist Stupa of the 2nd century B.C.), the Gupta Temple at Tigawa (District Jabalpur), and the temples at ran (District Sagar), A notable feature of these temples is the wider intercolumnination of the pillars in the middle than on the sides. As suggested by the flat roof, square or rectangular form the plain treatment of the walls and modestness of size, these temples must obviously have been derived from rock-cut proto-types of which early Gupta examples occur at Udaigiri near Sanchi. In fact Cave-shrine 1 at Udaigiri with a partly rock-cut sanctum and a structural porch of 4 pillars is of the early Gupta type, supporting the aforementioned inference.
Temple 17 at Sanchi is a classic example of lucid diction, perfect articulatiion and restrained decoratioin. It is considered to be the oldest structural Gupta temple because of its smaller dimensions, simplicity of constructioin and absence of vase-and-foliage member in its pillars which show a fluted bell-capital, the latter being an early feature. The temple at Tigawa has a more-and-foliage member united with the capital, a characteristic then on of the Gupta order. At Sanchi and Tigawa the pillars are crowned by brackets carved with figures of seated lions, a practice discontinued subsequently. The Vishnu Temple at Eran shows an evolved plan of definite architectural significance in that its sanctum has a central offset on the cardinal faces (except at the front). Its door-frame and porch pillars, however, were lately added, probably in the early Pratihara period (8th-9th centuries). The ruined Shiva Temple at Sakor (District Damoh) appears to be the latest temple of this type; it is distinguished by a closed mandapa and an ornamental doorway resembling in design that of the Shiva Temple at Bhumara (District Satna) belonging to the next group.
The second group of temples, characterised by the addition of a roofed ambulatoryround the sanctum and otherwise following the plan of the preceding group, is represented by the Parvati Temple at Na chna (District Panna in M.P.), and a ruined brick temple at Baigram (District Dinajpur, Bangladesh). The wall and the roof of the once-covered passage of the Nachna Temple have now disappeared leaving a an open promenade, where the ambulatory is lighted by trellises. The Nachna Temple is also notable for carrying a swuare, flat-roofed cell as an upper chamber placed above the sanctum. The plain facade of the Nachna Temple was originally relieved by a few sculptured niches and a continuous relief imitating rock-formations and grottos, containing figures of birds and animals. The Bhumara Temple is significant for introducing two smaller shrines on the flanks of the entrance steps. Its dado, door-frames, pillars and beams display exquisitely carved s crolls, dwarfs and kirttimukhas.
The next group of Gupta temples, distinguished by the presence of a spire over the square sanctum, is represented, among others, by the Dasha vatara Temple at Deogarh (District Lalitpur), constr5ucted of stone, and the brick-built Gupta temple at Bhitargaon (Distri ct Kanpur), both dating from c.6th century. These temples showing a rudimentary shikhara, which became the most characteristic feature of the north Indian style of temple-architecture, are highly significant. The Deogarh temple stands on a wide platform, approached by fights of steps on the 4 sides, and is of the panchaytatana (quincunx) t;ype having a subsidiar;y shrine in each corner. The platform is decorated with sculptured panels between pilasters representing edifying scenes from the legends of Rama and Krishna. The plain walls on the 3 sides of the tri-ratha sanctum are relived with recessed panels, each carved with a superb figure-composition within a framework of pilasters and architraves, depicting Vishnu as Sheshashayi, Gajendramoksha and the penance of Nara and Narayana. Its shikhara which is but partly preserved was probably pyramidical in elevation and was mainly em bellished with the chaitya-dormer motif. The Deogarh temple is one of the earliest to draw on the stories of Rama and Krishna which have inspired Indian artists in all ages. Only a few panels, mostly detached from the platform, have survived, of which 1o depict Rama's stories and 2_Krishna's. One of the Ramayana panels shows Ahilya, who was turned into stone by a curse, regaining her human form by the touch of the sacred feet of Rama. Another panel depicts Lakshmana cutting off the nose of Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana, for her audacity to propose amours. A third panel shows Hanuman bodily bringing the hill containing the herb that cured Lakshmana of the mortal wound inflicted by Meghanada, the son of Ravana. Of the two Krishna-lila friezes, one depicts Krishna as a miracle-child upturning the cart, while the other shows Krishna and Balarama being fondled as infants by Nanda and Yashoda, the latter wearing Abhira dress, resem bling the dress now worn by the ruralwomenfolk of Delhi and Haryana regions.
The temple at Bhaitargaon, constructed of brick and terracotta, is a stupendous pyramidical edifice (ht.21m) of diminishing tiers, raised on a high terrace. It is tri-ratha on plan with a prominent centrzal offset on each of the 3 sides and consists of a sanctum and ante-room (4.57m and 2.14m square internally), connected by an oblong passage. While the sanctum and the a nte-room had corbelled ceilings representing domical vaults, the passage and the entrance steps were covered by a wagon-vault roof. The mouldings of the podium are bold. The jangha (wall) is embellished with large sculptures niches, framed between ornamental pilasters and surmounted by a recessed row of terracotta bands between 2 prominent cornices. The terrocotta sculptures and friezes depict both secular and religious themes, suchg as divinties like Ganesha, Adi-Varaha, Mahishasura-mardini and river-goddesses, myths and stories representing the abduction of Sita and the penance of Nara and Narayana; and the divine ministrels and the dwarfs. Human and animal figures, fabulous birds and beasts and scrolls and other decorative designs further enrich the repertoire of decoration. The shikhara, though incompletely preserved, is a stepped pyramid, embellished with superimposed tiers of chaitya-niches containing a variety of heads or busts or full figures, generally human.
The original brick-built Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya(Districtt Gaya), though heavily encumbered with later restoration, is roughly co-eval with the Bhitargaon Temple and resembles the latter in essential features of plan and design including the valuated ceilings of the compartments and the tall lancet window in the upper storey. Its square sanctum carries a lofty (55 m high) pancha-ratha shikhara of a straight-edged pyramidicaldesign, demarcated
into 7 storeys by bhumi-amalakas and embellished with bold chaitya-dormers and niches framed by pilasters.
The Mahabodhi temple enshrining an image of Buddha in the earth-touching attitude marks the site of the holy tree jnder which Siddhartha Gautama saw the light and became 'Buddha' or the 'Enlightened One'. The legends associated with this supreme event are graphically narrated in Buddhist literature and are favourite themesof sculpture and painting in India and the Buddhist countries of South-East Asia. After six years of exertioin in quest of knowledge the Bodhisattva (Budha-to-be) undertook rigorous penance and carried fasting to such an excess the he was reduced to a skeleton--a scene realistically depicted in Gandhara sculpture. Realising the futility of mortification as the path for attaining knowledge, he resumed food whereupon the five companions who had attended on him during the past six years deserted him in disdain and went away to the Deer-forest (Samath).
On the eve of the full moon day of Vaishakha the Bodhisattva saw five dreams auguring his Enlightenment. Shortly after day-break he took his seat under the holy tree. It so happened that Sujata, the daughter of the local chieftain, also rose early that day to make an offering to the holy tree of rice-milk which she had cooked after eleborate preparation for the fulfilment of her desire to have a son when she got married. She sent her maid to clean the area round the holy tree and when her maid reported that the tree-divinityhad appeared in person, Sujata hurried to the spot and offered the golden vessel containing the rice-milk to the divinity who was no other than the Bodhisattva. Thereupon the Bodhisattva went to the river Niranjana, had a bath and ate the rice-milk which was to sustain him for the following seven weeks. The scenes of Sujata's offering and the bath in the Niranjana are depicted in beautiful reliefs on the great stupa of Borobudur in Java.
In the evening the Bodhisattva marched to the holy tree and was offered for seat a handufl of grass by god Indra disguised as Brahmin Svastika, who is represented on one ofthe earliest sculptures atBodh Gaya.
As the Bodhisattva sat in meditation under the holy tree (one of the polular ways of representing the Master) with a firmdetermination not to leave the adamantine seat till he had attained supreme wisdom, there arose a storm of conflict in his mind which is popularly represented in plastic and graphic arts as the scene of temptation. The legends say that Mara, the god of desire, sent his charming daughters totempt the Bodhisattva and when their blandishments failed,he sent his demon army to hurl all conceivable weapons and missiles which also proved futile. Mara, however, did not own defeat until the Bodhisattva called the earth to bear witness to his triumph by touching the ground with his right hand, which is another favourite method of representing the Master, as illustrated by the main image in the Mahabodhi Temple.
The most developed among the temples of the post-Gupta period is the brick-built Lakshmana temple at Sirpur (District Raipur, M.A.), which belongs roughly to the beginning of the 7th century and consists of a square sanctum roofed by a slightly curvilinear massive shikhara, resembling that of the Parashurameshvara temple at Bhubaneswar (p.68) in outline, constridted vestibule and a pillared mandapa enclosed by a brick wall, embellished with niches framed by pilasters and approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole resting on a high platform. The sanctum is pancharatha on plan and in elevation and shows a cardinal projection on 3 sides decorated with a beautifully carved sham door and a vertical row of 3 elaboratechaitya dormers over the shikhara. The rest of the faces of the temple are tastefully ornamented with bold designs of niches and pilasters, miniature shikharas and chaitya-dormers arranged in vertical bands which cast pleasing shadows and are intersected by horizontal bands of cornices decorated with small chaitya-niches. The recess dividing the jangha(wall) from the spire is marked with bold dipers. Althoughthe crowning ornaments of the shikhara are lost, heavy bhumi-amalakas indicating its division into 4 storeys are present on the corner buttresses. With its developed socle mouldings and its stout but slightlyincurved shikhara, this temple marks a transition between the Gupta and the early medieval temples, anti cipating several features of the latter.
We may also notice briefly the Gupta Temples of aberrant types. Among these the temple of Mani-naga (now called Maniyar Math) at Rajgir near Nalanda is a cylindrical brick-structure with shallow offsets at the 4 cardinal points. It is decorated with niches,originally containing stucco sculptures of Ganesha, Vishnu, Nataraja, worship of Shivalinga, nagas and an exquisite naga figure.
The temple known as Stupa Sita III at Nalanda, where the world-famous University was sited, consists of a series of 7 successive accumulations, of which the fifth one dating from the 6th century is a panchayatana with its 4 stupa-like corner towers and faces elaborately decorated with niches containing fine Buddhist stucco images. The temple is a solid rectangular structure and its lofty sanctum is approached by a grand flight of steps with its parapet walls embellished with majestic figures of lions.
Mukundara (District Kota, Rajasthan) has a flat-roofed, sand-stone temple possessing an ambulatory and resting on well-finished but stunted pillars with distinctive brackets. Standing on a low platform approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, this temple is notable as much for its ave-like simplicity of construction as for its retrained ornamentation with typical Gupta decorative motifs.
The stone temple of Mundeshvari (old Mandaleshvara) at Ramgarh (District Rohtas, Bihar) is an octagonal shrine (12.20m in diameter) of 8 principal offsets with 4 doorways in the cardinal directions and 4 niches in the corners, each flanked by a pair of smaller niches. The door-frames and niches are adorned with figures and ornaments of the developed Gupta style. The ceiling and the roof of the temple are lost, but traces of a mandapa have survived in front. The temple is securely dated in 636 by an inscription.
The original brick-built Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya(Districtt Gaya), though heavily encumbered with later restoration, is roughly co-eval with the Bhitargaon Temple and resembles the latter in essential features of plan and design including the valuated ceilings of the compartments and the tall lancet window in the upper storey. Its square sanctum carries a lofty (55 m high) pancha-ratha shikhara of a straight-edged pyramidicaldesign, demarcated
into 7 storeys by bhumi-amalakas and embellished with bold chaitya-dormers and niches framed by pilasters.
The Mahabodhi temple enshrining an image of Buddha in the earth-touching attitude marks the site of the holy tree jnder which Siddhartha Gautama saw the light and became 'Buddha' or the 'Enlightened One'. The legends associated with this supreme event are graphically narrated in Buddhist literature and are favourite themesof sculpture and painting in India and the Buddhist countries of South-East Asia. After six years of exertioin in quest of knowledge the Bodhisattva (Budha-to-be) undertook rigorous penance and carried fasting to such an excess the he was reduced to a skeleton--a scene realistically depicted in Gandhara sculpture. Realising the futility of mortification as the path for attaining knowledge, he resumed food whereupon the five companions who had attended on him during the past six years deserted him in disdain and went away to the Deer-forest (Samath).
On the eve of the full moon day of Vaishakha the Bodhisattva saw five dreams auguring his Enlightenment. Shortly after day-break he took his seat under the holy tree. It so happened that Sujata, the daughter of the local chieftain, also rose early that day to make an offering to the holy tree of rice-milk which she had cooked after eleborate preparation for the fulfilment of her desire to have a son when she got married. She sent her maid to clean the area round the holy tree and when her maid reported that the tree-divinityhad appeared in person, Sujata hurried to the spot and offered the golden vessel containing the rice-milk to the divinity who was no other than the Bodhisattva. Thereupon the Bodhisattva went to the river Niranjana, had a bath and ate the rice-milk which was to sustain him for the following seven weeks. The scenes of Sujata's offering and the bath in the Niranjana are depicted in beautiful reliefs on the great stupa of Borobudur in Java.
In the evening the Bodhisattva marched to the holy tree and was offered for seat a handufl of grass by god Indra disguised as Brahmin Svastika, who is represented on one ofthe earliest sculptures atBodh Gaya.
As the Bodhisattva sat in meditation under the holy tree (one of the polular ways of representing the Master) with a firmdetermination not to leave the adamantine seat till he had attained supreme wisdom, there arose a storm of conflict in his mind which is popularly represented in plastic and graphic arts as the scene of temptation. The legends say that Mara, the god of desire, sent his charming daughters totempt the Bodhisattva and when their blandishments failed,he sent his demon army to hurl all conceivable weapons and missiles which also proved futile. Mara, however, did not own defeat until the Bodhisattva called the earth to bear witness to his triumph by touching the ground with his right hand, which is another favourite method of representing the Master, as illustrated by the main image in the Mahabodhi Temple.
The most developed among the temples of the post-Gupta period is the brick-built Lakshmana temple at Sirpur (District Raipur, M.A.), which belongs roughly to the beginning of the 7th century and consists of a square sanctum roofed by a slightly curvilinear massive shikhara, resembling that of the Parashurameshvara temple at Bhubaneswar (p.68) in outline, constridted vestibule and a pillared mandapa enclosed by a brick wall, embellished with niches framed by pilasters and approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole resting on a high platform. The sanctum is pancharatha on plan and in elevation and shows a cardinal projection on 3 sides decorated with a beautifully carved sham door and a vertical row of 3 elaboratechaitya dormers over the shikhara. The rest of the faces of the temple are tastefully ornamented with bold designs of niches and pilasters, miniature shikharas and chaitya-dormers arranged in vertical bands which cast pleasing shadows and are intersected by horizontal bands of cornices decorated with small chaitya-niches. The recess dividing the jangha(wall) from the spire is marked with bold dipers. Althoughthe crowning ornaments of the shikhara are lost, heavy bhumi-amalakas indicating its division into 4 storeys are present on the corner buttresses. With its developed socle mouldings and its stout but slightlyincurved shikhara, this temple marks a transition between the Gupta and the early medieval temples, anti cipating several features of the latter.
We may also notice briefly the Gupta Temples of aberrant types. Among these the temple of Mani-naga (now called Maniyar Math) at Rajgir near Nalanda is a cylindrical brick-structure with shallow offsets at the 4 cardinal points. It is decorated with niches,originally containing stucco sculptures of Ganesha, Vishnu, Nataraja, worship of Shivalinga, nagas and an exquisite naga figure.
The temple known as Stupa Sita III at Nalanda, where the world-famous University was sited, consists of a series of 7 successive accumulations, of which the fifth one dating from the 6th century is a panchayatana with its 4 stupa-like corner towers and faces elaborately decorated with niches containing fine Buddhist stucco images. The temple is a solid rectangular structure and its lofty sanctum is approached by a grand flight of steps with its parapet walls embellished with majestic figures of lions.
Mukundara (District Kota, Rajasthan) has a flat-roofed, sand-stone temple possessing an ambulatory and resting on well-finished but stunted pillars with distinctive brackets. Standing on a low platform approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, this temple is notable as much for its ave-like simplicity of construction as for its retrained ornamentation with typical Gupta decorative motifs.
The stone temple of Mundeshvari (old Mandaleshvara) at Ramgarh (District Rohtas, Bihar) is an octagonal shrine (12.20m in diameter) of 8 principal offsets with 4 doorways in the cardinal directions and 4 niches in the corners, each flanked by a pair of smaller niches. The door-frames and niches are adorned with figures and ornaments of the developed Gupta style. The ceiling and the roof of the temple are lost, but traces of a mandapa have survived in front. The temple is securely dated in 636 by an inscription.
The Gupta age was marked by an unprecedented intelle ctual ferment and creative upsurge in all branches of arts and letters. Hitherto, temples were largely made of timber or other perish able material. The potentiality of dressed stone was for the first time appreciated during the Gupta period which ushered in an age of temple construction that was characterized by a more reasoned application of structural principles. Under the impact of the bhakti cult or worship of the personal god, which had taken deep root and permeated all the sects and sections of society, temples were built in fair number for the installatioin and worship of popular deities like Vasudeva and Balarama, Varaha and Narsimha, Vishnu, Shiva, Skanda and Bhddha throughout northern and central India and the Deccan of which a handful have survived. The ritual of the worship required basically a sanctum for the deity and a shelter for the worshipper, which were logically provided in the Gupta shrine.
Thus a firm foundation of Indian temple architecture was laid in the Gupta period when the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple—consiisting of a square sanctum and a pillared porch—emerged. The examples of the evolved Gupta temple also show a covered processional path for circumambulation which formed a part of the worship-ritual. The earlier examples in stone masonry are distinguished by a flat slab-roof, usually monolithic, while the later temples, constructed of either brick or stone, developed a shikara. The gradual evolution of the style is tra ceable through development of the plan and the ornamentation on the pillars and door-frame, the latter introducing new decorative motifs like goblins (ganas), couples (mithumnas), flyuing angels (vidyadharas), door-keepers (d varapalas) and a significant figure relief in the c entre of the lintel, emblematic of the deity to whom the shrine is dedicated.
The earliest group of Gupta temples, dating from 5th century and showing a single-celled sanctum with a shallow portico resting on 4 pillars in front, is represented by Temple 17 at Sanchi (the site of the famous Buddhist Stupa of the 2nd century B.C.), the Gupta Temple at Tigawa (District Jabalpur), and the temples at ran (District Sagar), A notable feature of these temples is the wider intercolumnination of the pillars in the middle than on the sides. As suggested by the flat roof, square or rectangular form the plain treatment of the walls and modestness of size, these temples must obviously have been derived from rock-cut proto-types of which early Gupta examples occur at Udaigiri near Sanchi. In fact Cave-shrine 1 at Udaigiri with a partly rock-cut sanctum and a structural porch of 4 pillars is of the early Gupta type, supporting the aforementioned inference.
Temple 17 at Sanchi is a classic example of lucid diction, perfect articulatiion and restrained decoratioin. It is considered to be the oldest structural Gupta temple because of its smaller dimensions, simplicity of constructioin and absence of vase-and-foliage member in its pillars which show a fluted bell-capital, the latter being an early feature. The temple at Tigawa has a more-and-foliage member united with the capital, a characteristic then on of the Gupta order. At Sanchi and Tigawa the pillars are crowned by brackets carved with figures of seated lions, a practice discontinued subsequently. The Vishnu Temple at Eran shows an evolved plan of definite architectural significance in that its sanctum has a central offset on the cardinal faces (except at the front). Its door-frame and porch pillars, however, were lately added, probably in the early Pratihara period (8th-9th centuries). The ruined Shiva Temple at Sakor (District Damoh) appears to be the latest temple of this type; it is distinguished by a closed mandapa and an ornamental doorway resembling in design that of the Shiva Temple at Bhumara (District Satna) belonging to the next group.
The second group of temples, characterised by the addition of a roofed ambulatoryround the sanctum and otherwise following the plan of the preceding group, is represented by the Parvati Temple at Na chna (District Panna in M.P.), and a ruined brick temple at Baigram (District Dinajpur, Bangladesh). The wall and the roof of the once-covered passage of the Nachna Temple have now disappeared leaving a an open promenade, where the ambulatory is lighted by trellises. The Nachna Temple is also notable for carrying a swuare, flat-roofed cell as an upper chamber placed above the sanctum. The plain facade of the Nachna Temple was originally relieved by a few sculptured niches and a continuous relief imitating rock-formations and grottos, containing figures of birds and animals. The Bhumara Temple is significant for introducing two smaller shrines on the flanks of the entrance steps. Its dado, door-frames, pillars and beams display exquisitely carved s crolls, dwarfs and kirttimukhas.
The next group of Gupta temples, distinguished by the presence of a spire over the square sanctum, is represented, among others, by the Dasha vatara Temple at Deogarh (District Lalitpur), constr5ucted of stone, and the brick-built Gupta temple at Bhitargaon (Distri ct Kanpur), both dating from c.6th century. These temples showing a rudimentary shikhara, which became the most characteristic feature of the north Indian style of temple-architecture, are highly significant. The Deogarh temple stands on a wide platform, approached by fights of steps on the 4 sides, and is of the panchaytatana (quincunx) t;ype having a subsidiar;y shrine in each corner. The platform is decorated with sculptured panels between pilasters representing edifying scenes from the legends of Rama and Krishna. The plain walls on the 3 sides of the tri-ratha sanctum are relived with recessed panels, each carved with a superb figure-composition within a framework of pilasters and architraves, depicting Vishnu as Sheshashayi, Gajendramoksha and the penance of Nara and Narayana. Its shikhara which is but partly preserved was probably pyramidical in elevation and was mainly em bellished with the chaitya-dormer motif. The Deogarh temple is one of the earliest to draw on the stories of Rama and Krishna which have inspired Indian artists in all ages. Only a few panels, mostly detached from the platform, have survived, of which 1o depict Rama's stories and 2_Krishna's. One of the Ramayana panels shows Ahilya, who was turned into stone by a curse, regaining her human form by the touch of the sacred feet of Rama. Another panel depicts Lakshmana cutting off the nose of Surpanakha, the sister of Ravana, for her audacity to propose amours. A third panel shows Hanuman bodily bringing the hill containing the herb that cured Lakshmana of the mortal wound inflicted by Meghanada, the son of Ravana. Of the two Krishna-lila friezes, one depicts Krishna as a miracle-child upturning the cart, while the other shows Krishna and Balarama being fondled as infants by Nanda and Yashoda, the latter wearing Abhira dress, resem bling the dress now worn by the ruralwomenfolk of Delhi and Haryana regions.
The temple at Bhaitargaon, constructed of brick and terracotta, is a stupendous pyramidical edifice (ht.21m) of diminishing tiers, raised on a high terrace. It is tri-ratha on plan with a prominent centrzal offset on each of the 3 sides and consists of a sanctum and ante-room (4.57m and 2.14m square internally), connected by an oblong passage. While the sanctum and the a nte-room had corbelled ceilings representing domical vaults, the passage and the entrance steps were covered by a wagon-vault roof. The mouldings of the podium are bold. The jangha (wall) is embellished with large sculptures niches, framed between ornamental pilasters and surmounted by a recessed row of terracotta bands between 2 prominent cornices. The terrocotta sculptures and friezes depict both secular and religious themes, suchg as divinties like Ganesha, Adi-Varaha, Mahishasura-mardini and river-goddesses, myths and stories representing the abduction of Sita and the penance of Nara and Narayana; and the divine ministrels and the dwarfs. Human and animal figures, fabulous birds and beasts and scrolls and other decorative designs further enrich the repertoire of decoration. The shikhara, though incompletely preserved, is a stepped pyramid, embellished with superimposed tiers of chaitya-niches containing a variety of heads or busts or full figures, generally human.
The original brick-built Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya(Districtt Gaya), though heavily encumbered with later restoration, is roughly co-eval with the Bhitargaon Temple and resembles the latter in essential features of plan and design including the valuated ceilings of the compartments and the tall lancet window in the upper storey. Its square sanctum carries a lofty (55 m high) pancha-ratha shikhara of a straight-edged pyramidicaldesign, demarcated
into 7 storeys by bhumi-amalakas and embellished with bold chaitya-dormers and niches framed by pilasters.
The Mahabodhi temple enshrining an image of Buddha in the earth-touching attitude marks the site of the holy tree jnder which Siddhartha Gautama saw the light and became 'Buddha' or the 'Enlightened One'. The legends associated with this supreme event are graphically narrated in Buddhist literature and are favourite themesof sculpture and painting in India and the Buddhist countries of South-East Asia. After six years of exertioin in quest of knowledge the Bodhisattva (Budha-to-be) undertook rigorous penance and carried fasting to such an excess the he was reduced to a skeleton--a scene realistically depicted in Gandhara sculpture. Realising the futility of mortification as the path for attaining knowledge, he resumed food whereupon the five companions who had attended on him during the past six years deserted him in disdain and went away to the Deer-forest (Samath).
On the eve of the full moon day of Vaishakha the Bodhisattva saw five dreams auguring his Enlightenment. Shortly after day-break he took his seat under the holy tree. It so happened that Sujata, the daughter of the local chieftain, also rose early that day to make an offering to the holy tree of rice-milk which she had cooked after eleborate preparation for the fulfilment of her desire to have a son when she got married. She sent her maid to clean the area round the holy tree and when her maid reported that the tree-divinityhad appeared in person, Sujata hurried to the spot and offered the golden vessel containing the rice-milk to the divinity who was no other than the Bodhisattva. Thereupon the Bodhisattva went to the river Niranjana, had a bath and ate the rice-milk which was to sustain him for the following seven weeks. The scenes of Sujata's offering and the bath in the Niranjana are depicted in beautiful reliefs on the great stupa of Borobudur in Java.
In the evening the Bodhisattva marched to the holy tree and was offered for seat a handufl of grass by god Indra disguised as Brahmin Svastika, who is represented on one ofthe earliest sculptures atBodh Gaya.
As the Bodhisattva sat in meditation under the holy tree (one of the polular ways of representing the Master) with a firmdetermination not to leave the adamantine seat till he had attained supreme wisdom, there arose a storm of conflict in his mind which is popularly represented in plastic and graphic arts as the scene of temptation. The legends say that Mara, the god of desire, sent his charming daughters totempt the Bodhisattva and when their blandishments failed,he sent his demon army to hurl all conceivable weapons and missiles which also proved futile. Mara, however, did not own defeat until the Bodhisattva called the earth to bear witness to his triumph by touching the ground with his right hand, which is another favourite method of representing the Master, as illustrated by the main image in the Mahabodhi Temple.
The most developed among the temples of the post-Gupta period is the brick-built Lakshmana temple at Sirpur (District Raipur, M.A.), which belongs roughly to the beginning of the 7th century and consists of a square sanctum roofed by a slightly curvilinear massive shikhara, resembling that of the Parashurameshvara temple at Bhubaneswar (p.68) in outline, constridted vestibule and a pillared mandapa enclosed by a brick wall, embellished with niches framed by pilasters and approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole resting on a high platform. The sanctum is pancharatha on plan and in elevation and shows a cardinal projection on 3 sides decorated with a beautifully carved sham door and a vertical row of 3 elaboratechaitya dormers over the shikhara. The rest of the faces of the temple are tastefully ornamented with bold designs of niches and pilasters, miniature shikharas and chaitya-dormers arranged in vertical bands which cast pleasing shadows and are intersected by horizontal bands of cornices decorated with small chaitya-niches. The recess dividing the jangha(wall) from the spire is marked with bold dipers. Althoughthe crowning ornaments of the shikhara are lost, heavy bhumi-amalakas indicating its division into 4 storeys are present on the corner buttresses. With its developed socle mouldings and its stout but slightlyincurved shikhara, this temple marks a transition between the Gupta and the early medieval temples, anti cipating several features of the latter.
We may also notice briefly the Gupta Temples of aberrant types. Among these the temple of Mani-naga (now called Maniyar Math) at Rajgir near Nalanda is a cylindrical brick-structure with shallow offsets at the 4 cardinal points. It is decorated with niches,originally containing stucco sculptures of Ganesha, Vishnu, Nataraja, worship of Shivalinga, nagas and an exquisite naga figure.
The temple known as Stupa Sita III at Nalanda, where the world-famous University was sited, consists of a series of 7 successive accumulations, of which the fifth one dating from the 6th century is a panchayatana with its 4 stupa-like corner towers and faces elaborately decorated with niches containing fine Buddhist stucco images. The temple is a solid rectangular structure and its lofty sanctum is approached by a grand flight of steps with its parapet walls embellished with majestic figures of lions.
Mukundara (District Kota, Rajasthan) has a flat-roofed, sand-stone temple possessing an ambulatory and resting on well-finished but stunted pillars with distinctive brackets. Standing on a low platform approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, this temple is notable as much for its ave-like simplicity of construction as for its retrained ornamentation with typical Gupta decorative motifs.
The stone temple of Mundeshvari (old Mandaleshvara) at Ramgarh (District Rohtas, Bihar) is an octagonal shrine (12.20m in diameter) of 8 principal offsets with 4 doorways in the cardinal directions and 4 niches in the corners, each flanked by a pair of smaller niches. The door-frames and niches are adorned with figures and ornaments of the developed Gupta style. The ceiling and the roof of the temple are lost, but traces of a mandapa have survived in front. The temple is securely dated in 636 by an inscription.
We come across yet another type of Gupta Temple which, though distinctive, is not very popular. This type is marked by a rectangular shrine with an apsidal rear-end and a wagon-vault roof showing a gable-end of the chaitya-dormer design. It is represented by only two examples, one at Ter, District Sholapur (Maharashtra) and the other, the Kapoteshvara Temple at Chezarla in District Krishna (Andhra Pradesh). Both are brick-structures, about 9.5m long, and are obviously the structural models of rock-cut chaitya-halls.
A few terraced brick-temples of the Gupta period have also survived. These are high solid structures and in each case the shrine is placed on the uppermost terrace, approached by a flight of steps. The earliest and best preserved specimen is the excavated temple at Pawaya, near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. showing 3 terraces of which the upper 2 are decorated with a continuous row of ornate pilasters surmounted by a frieze of chaitya-dormers. Terraced brick-temples,decorated with terracotta sculptured tiles continued to be built till the early medieval period. Large temples of this type have been exposed to view at the sites of Ahichchhaira (Ramnager) in Bareilly District and Paharpur (Bangladesh), the latter being remarka ble for its cruciform plan and enormous dimensions.
The later Gupta period appears to hve been an age of experimentatioin in north India. During the 7th-8th centuries, various temple forms were tried and we find a fair number with a flat roof, others with an undeveloped curvilinear shikhara and a few with a pyramidical roof of receding tiers. Small, flat-roofed shrines comprising in tri-ratha sanctum and a portico with 2 pillars in front are found in central India, continuing the tradition of the early Gupta Temple form. More than a dozen of them have been recently discovered at the sites of Ramgarh, Chhapara and Badoh in District Vidisha, near Sanchi, in addition to a few from the Lalitpur area of District Jhansi. These are unpretentious temples with a simple podium, a wall of large slabs, and a flat monolithic slab-roof each for the sanctum and the portico, the latter being slightly lower. Most of them are smaller than the earliest Gupta Temples at Sanchi and Tigawa and are generally simpler in construction, though they have a more ornate door-frame and pillars, and display sculptured niches crowned by a pediment on each of the 3 cardinal offsets. The pillars of the porch include vase-and-foliage member at the base, a lotus-band and kirttimukhas and again a vase-and-foliage capital, surmounted by brackets either of plain, curved profile or embellished with the foliage characteristically found in the Pratihara age, representing a quarter lotus.
A variant of this type also occurs at Ramgarh and Chhapara, displaying a decoration of only pilasters on the wall. Similar shrines of a slightly later date exist at Kundalpur (District Damoh in M.P.). The most ornate example of this variety is the Shiva Temple at Mahua (District Shivapuri in M.A.), which combines the decor of pilasters with sculptured niches on the cardinal offsets. This temple is also notable for bearing an inscribed record assignable to the 7th century.
An aberrant variety found at Makanganj, District Mandsaur in M.A., shows the cardinal offset only on the rear and the wall decorated with a single niche, surmounted by pediment and inset with an inscribed slab engraved in the same script as the inscription on the Mahua Temple. Another temple at Makanganj, with a swuare tri-ratha sanctum and a severe plain wall, is remarkable for its roof which is an incompletely preserved stepped pyramid composed of members decorated with bold chaitya-dormers inset with grotesque human heads.
The small experimental temples, just noticed, wre a sort of lithic primers and their importance lies in the fact that theyu constitute links between the Gupta and the Pratihara styles.
The original brick-built Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya(Districtt Gaya), though heavily encumbered with later restoration, is roughly co-eval with the Bhitargaon Temple and resembles the latter in essential features of plan and design including the valuated ceilings of the compartments and the tall lancet window in the upper storey. Its square sanctum carries a lofty (55 m high) pancha-ratha shikhara of a straight-edged pyramidicaldesign, demarcated
into 7 storeys by bhumi-amalakas and embellished with bold chaitya-dormers and niches framed by pilasters.
The Mahabodhi temple enshrining an image of Buddha in the earth-touching attitude marks the site of the holy tree jnder which Siddhartha Gautama saw the light and became 'Buddha' or the 'Enlightened One'. The legends associated with this supreme event are graphically narrated in Buddhist literature and are favourite themesof sculpture and painting in India and the Buddhist countries of South-East Asia. After six years of exertioin in quest of knowledge the Bodhisattva (Budha-to-be) undertook rigorous penance and carried fasting to such an excess the he was reduced to a skeleton--a scene realistically depicted in Gandhara sculpture. Realising the futility of mortification as the path for attaining knowledge, he resumed food whereupon the five companions who had attended on him during the past six years deserted him in disdain and went away to the Deer-forest (Samath).
On the eve of the full moon day of Vaishakha the Bodhisattva saw five dreams auguring his Enlightenment. Shortly after day-break he took his seat under the holy tree. It so happened that Sujata, the daughter of the local chieftain, also rose early that day to make an offering to the holy tree of rice-milk which she had cooked after eleborate preparation for the fulfilment of her desire to have a son when she got married. She sent her maid to clean the area round the holy tree and when her maid reported that the tree-divinityhad appeared in person, Sujata hurried to the spot and offered the golden vessel containing the rice-milk to the divinity who was no other than the Bodhisattva. Thereupon the Bodhisattva went to the river Niranjana, had a bath and ate the rice-milk which was to sustain him for the following seven weeks. The scenes of Sujata's offering and the bath in the Niranjana are depicted in beautiful reliefs on the great stupa of Borobudur in Java.
In the evening the Bodhisattva marched to the holy tree and was offered for seat a handufl of grass by god Indra disguised as Brahmin Svastika, who is represented on one ofthe earliest sculptures atBodh Gaya.
As the Bodhisattva sat in meditation under the holy tree (one of the polular ways of representing the Master) with a firmdetermination not to leave the adamantine seat till he had attained supreme wisdom, there arose a storm of conflict in his mind which is popularly represented in plastic and graphic arts as the scene of temptation. The legends say that Mara, the god of desire, sent his charming daughters totempt the Bodhisattva and when their blandishments failed,he sent his demon army to hurl all conceivable weapons and missiles which also proved futile. Mara, however, did not own defeat until the Bodhisattva called the earth to bear witness to his triumph by touching the ground with his right hand, which is another favourite method of representing the Master, as illustrated by the main image in the Mahabodhi Temple.
The most developed among the temples of the post-Gupta period is the brick-built Lakshmana temple at Sirpur (District Raipur, M.A.), which belongs roughly to the beginning of the 7th century and consists of a square sanctum roofed by a slightly curvilinear massive shikhara, resembling that of the Parashurameshvara temple at Bhubaneswar (p.68) in outline, constridted vestibule and a pillared mandapa enclosed by a brick wall, embellished with niches framed by pilasters and approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, the whole resting on a high platform. The sanctum is pancharatha on plan and in elevation and shows a cardinal projection on 3 sides decorated with a beautifully carved sham door and a vertical row of 3 elaboratechaitya dormers over the shikhara. The rest of the faces of the temple are tastefully ornamented with bold designs of niches and pilasters, miniature shikharas and chaitya-dormers arranged in vertical bands which cast pleasing shadows and are intersected by horizontal bands of cornices decorated with small chaitya-niches. The recess dividing the jangha(wall) from the spire is marked with bold dipers. Althoughthe crowning ornaments of the shikhara are lost, heavy bhumi-amalakas indicating its division into 4 storeys are present on the corner buttresses. With its developed socle mouldings and its stout but slightlyincurved shikhara, this temple marks a transition between the Gupta and the early medieval temples, anti cipating several features of the latter.
We may also notice briefly the Gupta Temples of aberrant types. Among these the temple of Mani-naga (now called Maniyar Math) at Rajgir near Nalanda is a cylindrical brick-structure with shallow offsets at the 4 cardinal points. It is decorated with niches,originally containing stucco sculptures of Ganesha, Vishnu, Nataraja, worship of Shivalinga, nagas and an exquisite naga figure.
The temple known as Stupa Sita III at Nalanda, where the world-famous University was sited, consists of a series of 7 successive accumulations, of which the fifth one dating from the 6th century is a panchayatana with its 4 stupa-like corner towers and faces elaborately decorated with niches containing fine Buddhist stucco images. The temple is a solid rectangular structure and its lofty sanctum is approached by a grand flight of steps with its parapet walls embellished with majestic figures of lions.
Mukundara (District Kota, Rajasthan) has a flat-roofed, sand-stone temple possessing an ambulatory and resting on well-finished but stunted pillars with distinctive brackets. Standing on a low platform approached by 2 lateral flights of steps, this temple is notable as much for its ave-like simplicity of construction as for its retrained ornamentation with typical Gupta decorative motifs.
The stone temple of Mundeshvari (old Mandaleshvara) at Ramgarh (District Rohtas, Bihar) is an octagonal shrine (12.20m in diameter) of 8 principal offsets with 4 doorways in the cardinal directions and 4 niches in the corners, each flanked by a pair of smaller niches. The door-frames and niches are adorned with figures and ornaments of the developed Gupta style. The ceiling and the roof of the temple are lost, but traces of a mandapa have survived in front. The temple is securely dated in 636 by an inscription.
We come across yet another type of Gupta Temple which, though distinctive, is not very popular. This type is marked by a rectangular shrine with an apsidal rear-end and a wagon-vault roof showing a gable-end of the chaitya-dormer design. It is represented by only two examples, one at Ter, District Sholapur (Maharashtra) and the other, the Kapoteshvara Temple at Chezarla in District Krishna (Andhra Pradesh). Both are brick-structures, about 9.5m long, and are obviously the structural models of rock-cut chaitya-halls.
A few terraced brick-temples of the Gupta period have also survived. These are high solid structures and in each case the shrine is placed on the uppermost terrace, approached by a flight of steps. The earliest and best preserved specimen is the excavated temple at Pawaya, near Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh. showing 3 terraces of which the upper 2 are decorated with a continuous row of ornate pilasters surmounted by a frieze of chaitya-dormers. Terraced brick-temples,decorated with terracotta sculptured tiles continued to be built till the early medieval period. Large temples of this type have been exposed to view at the sites of Ahichchhaira (Ramnager) in Bareilly District and Paharpur (Bangladesh), the latter being remarka ble for its cruciform plan and enormous dimensions.
The later Gupta period appears to hve been an age of experimentatioin in north India. During the 7th-8th centuries, various temple forms were tried and we find a fair number with a flat roof, others with an undeveloped curvilinear shikhara and a few with a pyramidical roof of receding tiers. Small, flat-roofed shrines comprising in tri-ratha sanctum and a portico with 2 pillars in front are found in central India, continuing the tradition of the early Gupta Temple form. More than a dozen of them have been recently discovered at the sites of Ramgarh, Chhapara and Badoh in District Vidisha, near Sanchi, in addition to a few from the Lalitpur area of District Jhansi. These are unpretentious temples with a simple podium, a wall of large slabs, and a flat monolithic slab-roof each for the sanctum and the portico, the latter being slightly lower. Most of them are smaller than the earliest Gupta Temples at Sanchi and Tigawa and are generally simpler in construction, though they have a more ornate door-frame and pillars, and display sculptured niches crowned by a pediment on each of the 3 cardinal offsets. The pillars of the porch include vase-and-foliage member at the base, a lotus-band and kirttimukhas and again a vase-and-foliage capital, surmounted by brackets either of plain, curved profile or embellished with the foliage characteristically found in the Pratihara age, representing a quarter lotus.
A variant of this type also occurs at Ramgarh and Chhapara, displaying a decoration of only pilasters on the wall. Similar shrines of a slightly later date exist at Kundalpur (District Damoh in M.P.). The most ornate example of this variety is the Shiva Temple at Mahua (District Shivapuri in M.A.), which combines the decor of pilasters with sculptured niches on the cardinal offsets. This temple is also notable for bearing an inscribed record assignable to the 7th century.
An aberrant variety found at Makanganj, District Mandsaur in M.A., shows the cardinal offset only on the rear and the wall decorated with a single niche, surmounted by pediment and inset with an inscribed slab engraved in the same script as the inscription on the Mahua Temple. Another temple at Makanganj, with a swuare tri-ratha sanctum and a severe plain wall, is remarkable for its roof which is an incompletely preserved stepped pyramid composed of members decorated with bold chaitya-dormers inset with grotesque human heads.
The small experimental temples, just noticed, wre a sort of lithic primers and their importance lies in the fact that theyu constitute links between the Gupta and the Pratihara styles.
Monday, December 17, 2007
CHARACTERASTICS OF NORTH INDIAN TEMPLES
The north Indian temple is characterised by a distinctive plan and elevation. Originally, the temple comprised a square sanctum and a square or rectangular pillared porch, both covered by a flat roof. Soon after, a covered ambulatory was added round the sanctum and the pillared porch was gradually enlarged to assume the form of a hall, oftern preceded by an entrance porch. The ambulatory, however, remained an optional member, as shrines without an ambulatory continued to be as common as those with one. In course of time a vestibule was added between the sanctum and the hall and the latter tended to develop lateral transepts for ventilation. For the same reason the ambulatory of the sanctum also developed, in due course, a rear as well as 2 lateral transepts. Notwithstanding these elaborations, the sanctum continued to be square or rectangular on plan with one or more offsets on each side. The central offset was always given a greater prominence and was frequently ornamented with a sculptured niche. These offsets were carried upwards along the facade from the base to the top of the superstructure and imparted a pronoun ced emphasis on the vertical lines of the elevation. From about the beginning of the 7th century, the sanctum was roofed by a tall, curvilinear spire (Shikhara) which constituted the most striking cognizance of the northern temple. The spire was initially of 3 vertical proje ctions which gradually increased to 5 and occasionally to 7. All such projections are co vered with a me3sh of Chaitya-dormers and the corner ones display in addition a series of small amalakas at the angles to demarcate the divisiohn of the spire into compressed storeys. The spire terminates in a neck-like constriction(griva)which is surmounted by a large ribbed, cir cular member called amalasaraka, crowned by a kalasha, the pitcherfinial.
In the elevation of temple , the platform is an optional member, but every temple customarily has a socle consisting of moulded courses. The socle supports the wall which may be plain or embellished with figure-sculptures on one or all the offsets. Evolved temples show more than one band of sculptures, which also occur in the recesses between the offsets. The carved frieze on the wall is surmounted by an eave-corni ce or a series of it that separates the wall from the spire, the mandapa(hall) carries a lower pyramidical roof of horizontal tiers.
The main compartments of the temple are axially articulated and have their independent ceilings. Since the construction is based on the trabeate principle, the ceilings are supported either on walls and pilasters or an pillars with their architraves. The vaulted or domical ceilings are built on the principle of corbelling, sometimes aided by inter-locking flanges. On the stone temples, well-dressed and finely-jointed ashlars were used for the face-stoneks and rough-dressed or coarse stones for the hearting. The stone courses are laid dry one upon the other and kept in position by their weight and balance, sometimes with the aid of iron clamps and dowels. In the internal construction of tall spires, the weight was reduced by building a series of superposed hollow chambers, held together by the device of tying opposite walls by beams at frequent intervals.
Thre entrance porch and the mandapa transepts on the developed temples of central and western India are in variably enclosed by an ornamental balustrade whioch is canopied by overhanging eaves. These, together with the frequent clustering in the spire by its submultiples, constiytute minor traits of the style. But the common and basic characteristics of all medieval northern Indian temples are the cruciform plan, the continuation of the main projections and offsets of the plan on the entire elevation and the curvilinear spire, the last constituting its most conspicuous feature.
Temples with these distinctive characteristics are ubiquitous throughout north India and are found as far south as the Tungabhadra valley. As a natural consequen ce of the distribution of the style over such extensi ve territories, regional variations came into being. Despite a basic homogeneity in essential aspects, the various regioinal styles followed their own course of evolution and developed local peculiarities and idioms according to the indigenous genius conditioned by their art traditions and political and cultural environs. The regional tenden cies appeared in the 7th century, became established by the 9th and the 10th centuries and attained full development during the 11th century. After the 7th century, the evolutioin of the northern temples had largely a regional pattern, often influen ced by powerful dynasties.
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In the elevation of temple , the platform is an optional member, but every temple customarily has a socle consisting of moulded courses. The socle supports the wall which may be plain or embellished with figure-sculptures on one or all the offsets. Evolved temples show more than one band of sculptures, which also occur in the recesses between the offsets. The carved frieze on the wall is surmounted by an eave-corni ce or a series of it that separates the wall from the spire, the mandapa(hall) carries a lower pyramidical roof of horizontal tiers.
The main compartments of the temple are axially articulated and have their independent ceilings. Since the construction is based on the trabeate principle, the ceilings are supported either on walls and pilasters or an pillars with their architraves. The vaulted or domical ceilings are built on the principle of corbelling, sometimes aided by inter-locking flanges. On the stone temples, well-dressed and finely-jointed ashlars were used for the face-stoneks and rough-dressed or coarse stones for the hearting. The stone courses are laid dry one upon the other and kept in position by their weight and balance, sometimes with the aid of iron clamps and dowels. In the internal construction of tall spires, the weight was reduced by building a series of superposed hollow chambers, held together by the device of tying opposite walls by beams at frequent intervals.
Thre entrance porch and the mandapa transepts on the developed temples of central and western India are in variably enclosed by an ornamental balustrade whioch is canopied by overhanging eaves. These, together with the frequent clustering in the spire by its submultiples, constiytute minor traits of the style. But the common and basic characteristics of all medieval northern Indian temples are the cruciform plan, the continuation of the main projections and offsets of the plan on the entire elevation and the curvilinear spire, the last constituting its most conspicuous feature.
Temples with these distinctive characteristics are ubiquitous throughout north India and are found as far south as the Tungabhadra valley. As a natural consequen ce of the distribution of the style over such extensi ve territories, regional variations came into being. Despite a basic homogeneity in essential aspects, the various regioinal styles followed their own course of evolution and developed local peculiarities and idioms according to the indigenous genius conditioned by their art traditions and political and cultural environs. The regional tenden cies appeared in the 7th century, became established by the 9th and the 10th centuries and attained full development during the 11th century. After the 7th century, the evolutioin of the northern temples had largely a regional pattern, often influen ced by powerful dynasties.
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EARLIEST STRUCTURAL OF TEMPLES
Evidence of the earliest known structural temples has been recovered through excavations; these are, however, too fragmentary to give a complete idea as to their form. A circular brick-and-timber shrine of the Maurya period(c. 3rd century B.C.) was excavated at Bairat (District Jaipur, in Rajasthan). The shrine measured 8.23 m. in diameter and was made of llime-plastered panels of brickwork, alternating with 26 octagonal pillars of wood. It was entered from the east through a small portico, supported on 2 wooden pillars and was surrounded by a 7-foot-wide ambulatory with an opening on the east. The whole structure was subsequently enclosed within a rectangular compound (21 m x 13.5 m), containing an open ground for the assembly in front of the entrance.
A second example of a Maurya temple uncovered by excavations_Temple 40 at Sanchi_has likewise a consistent plan. It was a stone temple on an ap[sidal plan, enclosed by an ambulatory and raised on a high, rectangular (26.5m x 24m) socle, approached by two flights of steps from diagonally opposite sides. The superstructure, possibly of timber, has disappeared. In the following century the socle was enlarged and the temple converted into a rectangular hypostyle mandapa measuring 41.75m x 27.75m, with 5 rows of 10 pillars, approached by lateral flights of steps at one end.
Temple 18 at Sanchi also was an apsidal stone temple probably with a timber superstructure, originally dating from the 2nd century B.C. The present ramins of the apsidal temple with its stately pillars and pilasters date from about the 7th century A.D.though the temple remained in use use till the medieval period.
Two other temples of a comparable date existed, one dedicated to Sankarshana and Vasudeva at Nagari (ancient Madhyamika) in Udaipur district, Rajasthan and the other, also a hagavata (Vaishnava) shrine, at Besnagar near Sanchi in central India. Both of them were elliptical on plan and were possibly made of timber, but their remains are too s crappy to yield an idea of their elevation and design.
A second example of a Maurya temple uncovered by excavations_Temple 40 at Sanchi_has likewise a consistent plan. It was a stone temple on an ap[sidal plan, enclosed by an ambulatory and raised on a high, rectangular (26.5m x 24m) socle, approached by two flights of steps from diagonally opposite sides. The superstructure, possibly of timber, has disappeared. In the following century the socle was enlarged and the temple converted into a rectangular hypostyle mandapa measuring 41.75m x 27.75m, with 5 rows of 10 pillars, approached by lateral flights of steps at one end.
Temple 18 at Sanchi also was an apsidal stone temple probably with a timber superstructure, originally dating from the 2nd century B.C. The present ramins of the apsidal temple with its stately pillars and pilasters date from about the 7th century A.D.though the temple remained in use use till the medieval period.
Two other temples of a comparable date existed, one dedicated to Sankarshana and Vasudeva at Nagari (ancient Madhyamika) in Udaipur district, Rajasthan and the other, also a hagavata (Vaishnava) shrine, at Besnagar near Sanchi in central India. Both of them were elliptical on plan and were possibly made of timber, but their remains are too s crappy to yield an idea of their elevation and design.
Saturday, December 15, 2007
TEMPLES IN ANDHRA PRADESH
Usually in Andhra Pradesh there is no village with out temple.The Rama,Siva, Vishnu,Devi,and Village 'ammavaru' temples are common in every Village.In this so many temples are having hundreds of years hostory.In raja's,samsthanadhees period they are constructed great temples with buitiful sculpture and they gave hundreds of acres land for temples development and nitya pooja's.I am trying to introduce some of the famous temples in Andhra Pradesh.
1.Devi Temples
2.Siva temples
3.Anjaneya temples
4.Veerabhadra,Ganapathi temples
5.Vishnu temples
6.Narasimha swami temples
7.Bramha & Other temples
8.Jnana,Divotees & Sanths temples
9.Ashramas & Mutts
DEVI TEMPLES IN ANDHRA
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1.KANAKA DURGA TEMPLE:
This temple is situated at indra keeladri hill in vijayawada
, krishna district.it is a famous shakti temple.
2.TIRUPATAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple is situated at penuganchiprolu village in krishna district. this temple built in the name of tirupatamma.she was a common house
wife.After death of her husband she was burned herself with her husband
body
. Then villagers built a temple the name of tirupatamma. This temple is
very famous in surounding districts.This temple established in A.C.1700.
3.SRI VIDYA SANKARESWARA SAHITA DURGABHAVANI MAHARAJNI:
This temple situated at sri nagara puri near machalipatnam in krishna
district.This temple was built by challapalli samshanadhipathi in 300
years back.Skill of the sculpture of thistemple is great.Out of the festivals devi kalyanotsav and devi navaratri utsav the month of chaitra are important.
4.VASAVI KANYAKAPARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous ponnuru town in gunturu district.ponnuru is famous holy place.This is an ancient temple.In A.C .1899 the Arya Vysya's rebuilt this temple.In this temple premises there are nageswara temple,rama temple,and venkateswara temple.
5.OLD PATESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Gurajala village in Gunturu District.It is an ancient temple.This temple was built in A.c.1688 by salivahana's.It is a small temple but very famous.
6.BANDLAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at historical chandole village in Gunturu District.
7.RAJA RAJESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nellore town.It is a new temple.It is a spacious and buitiful temple.
8.IRUGAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nellore village tank bund.This temple was built in 11 th century.
9.KAMAKSHI MALLIKHARJUNA SWAMIVARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated near Nellore in Jonnawada Village on Penna River bund.It is an ancient temple.This temple is very famous in Nellore district and also surrounding Districts.
Daily poojas and special festivals going on regularly.
10.PARVATHI DEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at bhairava kona hillforest in Nellore district.It is a new temple.But
Parvathi devi statue is an older.Bhairava kona is a buitiful place.So many caves are in bhairava kona.The sculpture in caves built by pallava kings in A.C 6 th century.
11.KANYAKAPARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Ananthapuram town.This temple built by Sri Meda Ramaiah in
1957 .It is a new temple.daily poojas,vysakha pournima vasavi jayanthi utsav,dasara,and karteeka masa pooja are going in this temple glouriesly.
12.KOLLAPURA MAHALAKSHMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous historical Ratnagiri Village in Ananthapur District.
Temple with spacious premises and the statue of mahalakshmi is looking very grace.
13.JOGULAMBA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous Alampur Village in Mahaboob nagar District.In Alampure thre are 9 temples of 6 th century.they are 1.Bala bramheswara temple 2.kumarabramheswara temple 3.arka bramheswaratemple 4.veerabramheswara temple 5.vishwa bramheswara temple 6.t6araka bramheswara temple 7.guru bramheswara temple
8.swarna bramheswara temple 9.padma bramheswara temple.
Jogulamba is powerful shakthi temple.And also alampur is famous saiva kshetram.
there is one musium with 6 th century damaged statues and after centurys sculpture monuments.
14.UJJAYANI MAHANKALI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at sicendr bad ,general bazar.This temple built by suruti.Appayya
in 1815 th year, in the shape of wood statue.And then in 1980 A.P. Chief minister marri chenna reddy renovated this temple.This temple started in small shape and developed .Now this temple very famous in twin cities.Daily thousands of people seeing this temple.
15.YELLAMMA POCHAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Bulkam peta in hyderabad.It is a 100 years of old temple.this temple is also very known as Renuka temple.In every sundays the devotie ladies put the bonas on heads and doing dances with music and giving bonas to devi is very special.
16.SRI PEDDAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at jublee hills in hyderabad.It is a new temple,But very popular in twin cities.Every day thousands of devoties come to this temple and doing poojas.
17.VANA DURGA BHAVANI TEMPLE:
This temple situated in the centre of hill forest on manjeera river bank near Ganapa varandam
in Medak District.It is a Cave temple.This temple surrounded with nature buety.
18.YELLAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated historical bodhan town in Nizamabad distric. this temple built in 14th century by Viswa vimalaraja.
19.KALA BHAIRAVA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Issanna palli village nizamabad distric. every tuesday kala bhairava pooja in karteeka bahula ashtami yearly 'jatara' is going in this temple.
20. HINGULA DEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nizamabad town.Allasani peddana wrote detais of this temple in his "Swarabhishma" is an ancient temple.
21.BHADRAKALI TEMPLE:
This temple situated betveen Hanumakonda and Warangal town.This temple built i A.C.625 by
2 nd Pulakesi chakravarthi.This temple rennovated by sri Maganlal Samaj in 1950.
22.SRI NAGARESWARA MAHISHASURA MADRDHANI,SRI VASAVI KANYAKA PARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This Temple situated at Penugonda Village in West Godavari District.It is a very spacious temple.
23.KALIMATHA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Visakha sea beach in Visakha town.It is a new temple.In this temple with out 'dakshina',the poojas are going on.It is very special in yhis temple.
24.SRI KANAKAMAHALAKSHMI TEMPLE.
This temple situated at Burujupet in Visakhapatnam.Daily pooja and every year margasira month devi jatara going very special in this temple.
25.SRI CHAKRASAIMERU TEMPLE:
This temple situated near 20 k.m to vizag town at Penubarthi.It is a new temple.At present this is very famous 'sakthi peetham'
26.NUCAMBICADEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Anakapalli town in visakha district.This temple is famous from A.C.1450.This temple rennovated in 1990's.This temple godess is favourite godes for lachks of people.
27.PAIDITALLI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Vizianagaram town.This is very near to raja's kota.It is favourite godes to vizianagara raja's.This temple is very famous in Vizianagaram district.
28.NEELAMANI DURGA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Pathapatnam in Srikakulam District.It is a new temple.This temple looks very buetiful.
SHIVA TEMPLES
---------------------
.1.Bhavani Mukteswara Temple:This temple situated at Muktyala village on krishna river bank in krishna district.This temple built in kakateeya's period.This muktyala village is vasireddy raja's residence place.They are developed this temple.
2.OmkaraSamethaChandraMouliswra temple:This temple situated at historical Jaggayya pet village in Krishna district.It is built by raja Vasireddy Venkatadri naidu in A.c .1794.
3.SambhuLingeswara Temple:This temple situated at penuganchiprolu on munneti river bank
in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.In olden days it is travellers junction for tourists.
4.Sangameswara temple:This temple situated at Damuluru village in the place of vyraand katte streams junction place in krishna district.It is constructed by Amaravathi samsthanadheesh
sri Raja Vasireddy Venkatadri naidu in 200 years back.It is basically siva temple but vishnu temple is also here.The raja's builted 108 temples.It is one of those temples.
5.Parvathisametha Ramalingeswara temple:This temple situted at veerulapadu village in krishna bdistrict.It is one of the 108 temples who built by raja vasireddy venkatadri naidu in
200 years back.In 1932 this village youth participated in 'harijanodyamam' very well.It is rennovated in 1996.
6.Someswara temple:This temple situated at jujjaru village near verulapadu village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is built by allamsetty venkanna.
7.Bheemeswara temple:This temple situated at famous movva villaga in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is established by Moudgalyudu.
8.Yekaratri prasannaMallikharjuna Swami temple:This temple situated at historical famous
Srikakulam Village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.
9.BalaParvathiSametha Sri Jaladheeswara temple:This temple situated at historical Ghantasala
village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is famous as Agasthya mahamuni established this temple.In this premices one siva temple and subramanyeswara temple are located.they
were constructed in A.C.1813.
TEMPLES IN ANDHRA
10.SRI DURGA NAGESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at pedda kallepalli village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple. This temple established in A.C.1140.This temple was rennovated by challapalli raja yarlagadda kodanda ramanna in 1782.
11.SRI SUBRAMANYESWARA TEMPLE:
tHIS TEMPLE SITUATED AT MOPIDEVI VILLAGE IN KRISHNA DISTRICT.iT IS ESTABLISHED 200 YEARS BACK.
12.SAKALESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at mopidevi village near subramanyeswara temple.This temple constructed in 1785 by adusumalli gangabhotlu garu.
13.RAJARJESWARI SAMETHA RAJASEKHARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated avnigadda village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple. This temple constructed by chola rajas.
14.GANGA BHRAMARAMBHA SAMETHA MALLESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at mangalagiri in guntur district.It is an ancient temple.
15.BHRAMARAMBHA SAMETHA MALLESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at pedda kakani village in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed by chitterusu manthri.This temple rennovated by godavarthi radha krishnaiah garu.
16.CHAMUNDESWARI SAMETA AMARESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at amaravathi on krishna river bank in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed in sathavahana raja's period.It is a very famous temple.This rennovated by raja vasireddy venkatadri naidu.
17.SIVA KSHETRAM:
This temple situated near ramanama kshetram in gunturu.It is a new temple.This temple established by sringeri peethadhipathi sri vidyananda bharathi swami in 1960.In this temple ganga parvathi sametha ramalingeswara swami is the main god.
18.THRIKUTESWARA TEMPLE.:
This temple situated at kotappakonda near narasarao pet in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple constructed in chalukya's peariod.kotappakonda temple is very famous in kostha andhra.every year lakhs of people come here for tirunallu,the tirunallu is famous as kotappakonda thirunallu.
19.SRI KAPOTESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at chejarla village near narasarao peta in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed in 6 th century.As per history in this place the sibi chakravarthy cut his body and save the pegion.
20.BALASUNDARI SAMETHA SOMESWARA SWAMI AND KOODALESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at shekuru village in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This rennovated by vasireddy nagaiah in 1850.
21.SANGAMESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous sangam jagarlamudi in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.As per sthala puranam this temple established by athri mahamuni.but as per histiry in 17 th century the velam raja's constructed this temple.
22.SRI GANGAPARVATHA VARDHANI SAMETHA RAMESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at tenali town in gunturu district.It si an ancient temple.As per sthala puranam this temple established by parasurama.It is rennovated in 1966.
23.AMRUTESWARA TEMPLE:
2.Siva temples
3.Anjaneya temples
4.Veerabhadra,Ganapathi temples
5.Vishnu temples
6.Narasimha swami temples
7.Bramha & Other temples
8.Jnana,Divotees & Sanths temples
9.Ashramas & Mutts
DEVI TEMPLES IN ANDHRA
----------------------------------
1.KANAKA DURGA TEMPLE:
This temple is situated at indra keeladri hill in vijayawada
, krishna district.it is a famous shakti temple. 2.TIRUPATAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple is situated at penuganchiprolu village in krishna district. this temple built in the name of tirupatamma.she was a common housewife.After death of her husband she was burned herself with her husband
body
. Then villagers built a temple the name of tirupatamma. This temple isvery famous in surounding districts.This temple established in A.C.1700.
3.SRI VIDYA SANKARESWARA SAHITA DURGABHAVANI MAHARAJNI:
This temple situated at sri nagara puri near machalipatnam in krishna
district.This temple was built by challapalli samshanadhipathi in 300
years back.Skill of the sculpture of thistemple is great.Out of the festivals devi kalyanotsav and devi navaratri utsav the month of chaitra are important.
4.VASAVI KANYAKAPARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous ponnuru town in gunturu district.ponnuru is famous holy place.This is an ancient temple.In A.C .1899 the Arya Vysya's rebuilt this temple.In this temple premises there are nageswara temple,rama temple,and venkateswara temple.
5.OLD PATESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Gurajala village in Gunturu District.It is an ancient temple.This temple was built in A.c.1688 by salivahana's.It is a small temple but very famous.
6.BANDLAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at historical chandole village in Gunturu District.
7.RAJA RAJESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nellore town.It is a new temple.It is a spacious and buitiful temple.
8.IRUGAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nellore village tank bund.This temple was built in 11 th century.
9.KAMAKSHI MALLIKHARJUNA SWAMIVARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated near Nellore in Jonnawada Village on Penna River bund.It is an ancient temple.This temple is very famous in Nellore district and also surrounding Districts.
Daily poojas and special festivals going on regularly.
10.PARVATHI DEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at bhairava kona hillforest in Nellore district.It is a new temple.But
Parvathi devi statue is an older.Bhairava kona is a buitiful place.So many caves are in bhairava kona.The sculpture in caves built by pallava kings in A.C 6 th century.
11.KANYAKAPARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Ananthapuram town.This temple built by Sri Meda Ramaiah in
1957 .It is a new temple.daily poojas,vysakha pournima vasavi jayanthi utsav,dasara,and karteeka masa pooja are going in this temple glouriesly.
12.KOLLAPURA MAHALAKSHMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous historical Ratnagiri Village in Ananthapur District.
Temple with spacious premises and the statue of mahalakshmi is looking very grace.
13.JOGULAMBA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous Alampur Village in Mahaboob nagar District.In Alampure thre are 9 temples of 6 th century.they are 1.Bala bramheswara temple 2.kumarabramheswara temple 3.arka bramheswaratemple 4.veerabramheswara temple 5.vishwa bramheswara temple 6.t6araka bramheswara temple 7.guru bramheswara temple
8.swarna bramheswara temple 9.padma bramheswara temple.
Jogulamba is powerful shakthi temple.And also alampur is famous saiva kshetram.
there is one musium with 6 th century damaged statues and after centurys sculpture monuments.
14.UJJAYANI MAHANKALI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at sicendr bad ,general bazar.This temple built by suruti.Appayya
in 1815 th year, in the shape of wood statue.And then in 1980 A.P. Chief minister marri chenna reddy renovated this temple.This temple started in small shape and developed .Now this temple very famous in twin cities.Daily thousands of people seeing this temple.
15.YELLAMMA POCHAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Bulkam peta in hyderabad.It is a 100 years of old temple.this temple is also very known as Renuka temple.In every sundays the devotie ladies put the bonas on heads and doing dances with music and giving bonas to devi is very special.
16.SRI PEDDAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at jublee hills in hyderabad.It is a new temple,But very popular in twin cities.Every day thousands of devoties come to this temple and doing poojas.
17.VANA DURGA BHAVANI TEMPLE:
This temple situated in the centre of hill forest on manjeera river bank near Ganapa varandam
in Medak District.It is a Cave temple.This temple surrounded with nature buety.
18.YELLAMMA TEMPLE:
This temple situated historical bodhan town in Nizamabad distric. this temple built in 14th century by Viswa vimalaraja.
19.KALA BHAIRAVA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Issanna palli village nizamabad distric. every tuesday kala bhairava pooja in karteeka bahula ashtami yearly 'jatara' is going in this temple.
20. HINGULA DEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Nizamabad town.Allasani peddana wrote detais of this temple in his "Swarabhishma" is an ancient temple.
21.BHADRAKALI TEMPLE:
This temple situated betveen Hanumakonda and Warangal town.This temple built i A.C.625 by
2 nd Pulakesi chakravarthi.This temple rennovated by sri Maganlal Samaj in 1950.
22.SRI NAGARESWARA MAHISHASURA MADRDHANI,SRI VASAVI KANYAKA PARAMESWARI TEMPLE:
This Temple situated at Penugonda Village in West Godavari District.It is a very spacious temple.
23.KALIMATHA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Visakha sea beach in Visakha town.It is a new temple.In this temple with out 'dakshina',the poojas are going on.It is very special in yhis temple.
24.SRI KANAKAMAHALAKSHMI TEMPLE.
This temple situated at Burujupet in Visakhapatnam.Daily pooja and every year margasira month devi jatara going very special in this temple.
25.SRI CHAKRASAIMERU TEMPLE:
This temple situated near 20 k.m to vizag town at Penubarthi.It is a new temple.At present this is very famous 'sakthi peetham'
26.NUCAMBICADEVI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Anakapalli town in visakha district.This temple is famous from A.C.1450.This temple rennovated in 1990's.This temple godess is favourite godes for lachks of people.
27.PAIDITALLI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Vizianagaram town.This is very near to raja's kota.It is favourite godes to vizianagara raja's.This temple is very famous in Vizianagaram district.
28.NEELAMANI DURGA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at Pathapatnam in Srikakulam District.It is a new temple.This temple looks very buetiful.
SHIVA TEMPLES
---------------------
.1.Bhavani Mukteswara Temple:This temple situated at Muktyala village on krishna river bank in krishna district.This temple built in kakateeya's period.This muktyala village is vasireddy raja's residence place.They are developed this temple.
2.OmkaraSamethaChandraMouliswra temple:This temple situated at historical Jaggayya pet village in Krishna district.It is built by raja Vasireddy Venkatadri naidu in A.c .1794.
3.SambhuLingeswara Temple:This temple situated at penuganchiprolu on munneti river bank
in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.In olden days it is travellers junction for tourists.
4.Sangameswara temple:This temple situated at Damuluru village in the place of vyraand katte streams junction place in krishna district.It is constructed by Amaravathi samsthanadheesh
sri Raja Vasireddy Venkatadri naidu in 200 years back.It is basically siva temple but vishnu temple is also here.The raja's builted 108 temples.It is one of those temples.
5.Parvathisametha Ramalingeswara temple:This temple situted at veerulapadu village in krishna bdistrict.It is one of the 108 temples who built by raja vasireddy venkatadri naidu in
200 years back.In 1932 this village youth participated in 'harijanodyamam' very well.It is rennovated in 1996.
6.Someswara temple:This temple situated at jujjaru village near verulapadu village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is built by allamsetty venkanna.
7.Bheemeswara temple:This temple situated at famous movva villaga in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is established by Moudgalyudu.
8.Yekaratri prasannaMallikharjuna Swami temple:This temple situated at historical famous
Srikakulam Village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.
9.BalaParvathiSametha Sri Jaladheeswara temple:This temple situated at historical Ghantasala
village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple.It is famous as Agasthya mahamuni established this temple.In this premices one siva temple and subramanyeswara temple are located.they
were constructed in A.C.1813.
TEMPLES IN ANDHRA
10.SRI DURGA NAGESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at pedda kallepalli village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple. This temple established in A.C.1140.This temple was rennovated by challapalli raja yarlagadda kodanda ramanna in 1782.
11.SRI SUBRAMANYESWARA TEMPLE:
tHIS TEMPLE SITUATED AT MOPIDEVI VILLAGE IN KRISHNA DISTRICT.iT IS ESTABLISHED 200 YEARS BACK.
12.SAKALESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at mopidevi village near subramanyeswara temple.This temple constructed in 1785 by adusumalli gangabhotlu garu.
13.RAJARJESWARI SAMETHA RAJASEKHARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated avnigadda village in krishna district.It is an ancient temple. This temple constructed by chola rajas.
14.GANGA BHRAMARAMBHA SAMETHA MALLESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at mangalagiri in guntur district.It is an ancient temple.
15.BHRAMARAMBHA SAMETHA MALLESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at pedda kakani village in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed by chitterusu manthri.This temple rennovated by godavarthi radha krishnaiah garu.
16.CHAMUNDESWARI SAMETA AMARESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at amaravathi on krishna river bank in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed in sathavahana raja's period.It is a very famous temple.This rennovated by raja vasireddy venkatadri naidu.
17.SIVA KSHETRAM:
This temple situated near ramanama kshetram in gunturu.It is a new temple.This temple established by sringeri peethadhipathi sri vidyananda bharathi swami in 1960.In this temple ganga parvathi sametha ramalingeswara swami is the main god.
18.THRIKUTESWARA TEMPLE.:
This temple situated at kotappakonda near narasarao pet in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple constructed in chalukya's peariod.kotappakonda temple is very famous in kostha andhra.every year lakhs of people come here for tirunallu,the tirunallu is famous as kotappakonda thirunallu.
19.SRI KAPOTESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at chejarla village near narasarao peta in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This temple was constructed in 6 th century.As per history in this place the sibi chakravarthy cut his body and save the pegion.
20.BALASUNDARI SAMETHA SOMESWARA SWAMI AND KOODALESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at shekuru village in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.This rennovated by vasireddy nagaiah in 1850.
21.SANGAMESWARA TEMPLE:
This temple situated at famous sangam jagarlamudi in gunturu district.It is an ancient temple.As per sthala puranam this temple established by athri mahamuni.but as per histiry in 17 th century the velam raja's constructed this temple.
22.SRI GANGAPARVATHA VARDHANI SAMETHA RAMESWARA SWAMI TEMPLE:
This temple situated at tenali town in gunturu district.It si an ancient temple.As per sthala puranam this temple established by parasurama.It is rennovated in 1966.
23.AMRUTESWARA TEMPLE:
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